What's wrong with the school system

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The most fundamental problem with an exam-oriented education system is that examinations distort students' motivation and learning by over-emphasising the importance of the scores as outcomes and measures of students' abilities (Paris, S., 15). Exams can redefine students' goal for learning in counterproductive ways that make the outcome more important than learning as inquiry, reflection, and process. Research on academic motivation indicates that a focus on extrinsic goals (such as exam scores) and task completion (such as getting through the exam) undermines intrinsic motivation, interest, and persistence (Ames and Archer, 188). In contrast, when students have mastery goals and take pride in their efforts and accomplishments, they use better strategies and display more self-regulated learning (Pintrich and DeGroot, 10). When high test-scores become the goal rather than self-regulated learning, students invest disproportionate value and effort in exams. Actually, for many students, the consequences of testing are neutral or negative, ranging from the innocuous lack of feedback to negative feedback about one's competency.

Paris (15) pointed out that over-stressing on exams might also subvert students' learning strategies because exam-taking strategies are usually inconsistent with learning strategies taught everyday in the classroom. Most students are taught to use people and materials as resources for learning in classes, but are disallowed from using them during exam (except open-book exams, which are not too popular in NUS). What do students learn while taking exams? Too often, they learn that exams are different from the daily curriculum and assessments, that one needs special tricks to pass them, that low scores mean a person is dumb, and that teachers cannot help students.

Consequently, our students often expect the teacher to give them notes, dole out the straight facts in class, and even tell them the questions which will come out in the exam. They would rather practise rote learning, and are eager to know the answers, than to find out the answers to questions (c.f. 'Connecting Assessment and Learning' of this series). They cannot see exams as part of a learning process, nor can they understand that they can get information there to help them to learn.

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Larry

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Every family comes across stress once in a while. Stress has to do with

change. As Gary L. Hansen a specialist in sociology said, "stress happens

whenever a family system changes." It can happen when someone close dies,

when someone gets ill, getting fired from a job, getting a new job, moving, etc.

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When anything happens the family has to learn how to deal with the stress.

Some families learn how to adapt well to certain changes and

stresses while some families don't know how to deal well at all. One sociologist,

Reuben Hill identified three factors which determine the nature and degree of

stress experienced by a family (Hansen, 17). They are; 1) the stressor event

itself ) the family's resources or strengths at the time of event ) the definition or

meaning the family attaches to the event. A stress can either be expected or

unexpected, positive or negative. Depending on what it is can either make the

stress easy or hard to deal with.

In some family incidents to many changes happen at one time.

When that happens it is called "stressor pile-up". These families have a lot more

to deal with that causes too much stress. When families do come across stress it

depends on the strength or resources of each person in the family to cope with the

stress. The strength means whether or not one of the family members is healthy or

unhealthy because a healthy member will find it easier to cope with stress then an

unhealthy family member. Also family members with positive self-concepts and

high self-esteem handle stress better then

the ones with negative self-concepts and low self-esteem and family members who

take charge and are assertive also handle stress better then the ones who think that

they are powerless to change things (Hansen,17). The family resources on

handling stress have a few characteristics. Some characteristics in family

resources are; communication, family flexibility and connection with others.

Communication is said to be the most important when families have to cope with

stress. It's said that families with communication are strong families. The

families that have communication spend time talking to eachother, share their

feelings, fears, joys, sorrows and needs (Hansen,17).

For any family to cope with any kind of stress the family must first

decide, accomplish and encounter. These should all be used in an everyday life,

that's how it will help cope with any stress or change. Families who have open

systems are the ones open to growth and change. Families who have closed

systems try to avoid change and try to maintain the way things are. That makes it

extremely hard for a family to cope when a stress occurs.

There are three adjustment coping strategies to deal with stress.

They are avoidance, elimination, and assimilation (McCubbin & Figley,18).

Avoidance is a family who ignores the stressors and either believe or hope that the

stress will go away on it's own. Elimination is when the family gets rid of the

stress by either removing it or changing it. Assimilation is when the family only

makes minor changes when they have to deal with a stress.

After a stress the family has to work on adaptive coping strategies.

They are synergizing, interfacing, and compromising. Synergizing refers to family

efforts to coordinate and pull together as a unit to accomplish a shared lifestyle

and orientation which cannot be achieved by any member alone but only through

mutuality and interdependence (McCubbin & Figley). Someother family coping

strategies are;

1) maintaining satisfactory internal conditions for communication and family

organization ) promoting member independence and self-esteem ) maintenance

of family bonds of coherence and unity 4) maintenance and development of social

supports in transactions with the community 5) maintenance of some efforts to

control the impact of the demands and the amount of change in the family unit

(McCubbin & Figley, 18).

If a family can't get through any stressors alone they can count on

community resources. The family can go to formal support groups, professionals

and services. Community resources can make coping with stress a lot easier on the

family.

Coping becomes a process of achieving a balance in the family

system which facilitates organization and unity and promotes individual growth

and development (McCubbin & Figley, 18). Not everyone copes well with

stressful situations. Some people may be upset, anxious, helpless, or mad. These

things can affect your family and make the change or stress a whole lot worse.

There is no right or wrong way of perceiving stressful events, but it

is important to realize that it is your perceptions of stressor events, rather than the

events themselves, that determine your feelings and behavior (Hansen,17).

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Song of Solomon

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Animals and nature itself have been used throughout the course of literature to symbolize more important ideas. Through such references a great amount of information can be relayed about characters, past events, current predicaments, and can help to highlight themes in a novel. Toni Morrison used such techniques in an extraordinarily effective way. The symbolic use of animals in her book Song of Solomon drew attention to history, character development, and most importantly themes. This added richness to her novel that could not have otherwise been achieved.

One of the first references to animals that we see in the book is to flight. Throughout the novel Morrison continues this theme of flying and it is a backbone to the novel itself. More importantly, flight for Morrison symbolizes freedom. The black race, at the time period in which the novel was written, was under great prejudice from the white race. Their freedom was limited at best, and though they were free of slavery, they still had not achieved social equality. This was symbolized by the flight of the doctor from Mercy Hospital. The Doctor flew to his freedom, to his own death, and because of his flight the first colored person was admitted to Mercy Hospital. This began the theme of flight which Morrison continues to the very end of the book.

The theme of flying is central to the novel itself. In fact, if the reader was not promised that Milkman would fly, there would be no reason to continue reading it. It was the climax promised in the beginning, and central to the freedom Morrison wanted to portray. There was more to Milkman's flight than death, it was his final release from what held him imprisoned, it was where his true freedom began. In his final flight, Milkman let go of all that held his down, accepted his heritage, his history, and his future, and thus he was free.

However, not all of Morrison's uses of animals in her book were carried throughout. Some, like Lincoln's Heaven, were included more as a history lesson than to reiterate themes. Solomon named his farm animals after famous historical figures simply to remember history, and to reach Macon about those historical figures. However, to Pilate, Lincoln's Heaven was indeed a paradise where she could walk around barefoot and eat what they grew. Lincoln's Heaven helps us to understand Pilate's actions, and behaviors throughout the book. In this case, it was a lesson in character habitualness, and motivation. Though Lincoln's Heaven has few thematic contributions, through its inclusion we learn a great deal about some main characters which add richness and fullness to the novel itself.

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Indeed history was an important aspect of Morrison's life, as was heritage. It has been said in order to know who you are, you must know where you came from. Morrison would certainly promote this view. Lincoln's Heaven is more than just a lesson in history, it is a lesson of heritage. Where Milkman's family came from, and the toils they went through are vital to understanding Milkman himself. Motivation is important to understanding a character's actions, just as history is important to understanding heritage. This makes Lincoln's Heaven an important part of a novel based on black pride and black heritage.

Morrison also used animal analogies to help us better understand past events. After hitting his father, Milkman goes to Guitar to cheer himself up. Guitar offers an interesting analogy to one of his hunting experiences. Guitar had been tracking a deer, and after seeing it through some brush shot it. When he went to look at his prize he noticed it was no buck, but instead an old doe. Macon hitting Ruth was similar to how Guitar killed the doe. "A man shouldn't do that" (Guitar pg. 85)

Such analogies are useful when we attempt to judge the personality of characters in a story. Ruth is characterized as helpless like the doe. This characterization holds true throughout the story. However, if we take the analogy further, Macon is the hunter, who killed the doe by accident, though it was obvious he purposely hit her and was not ignorant. Though, it must be said, in the end we learn much more of Macon's character and we can begin to understand that perhaps he, at least partly, was not totally at fault. She led him into it, she pushed him too far, she left her tracks, and after careful consideration all parts of the analogy hold true. Morrison's analogy is very insightful in helping the reader to understand the characters of Ruth and Macon on a more personal level.

Not all references to characters through symbolisms of animals are positive in the novel, however. For instance, Macon refers to pilot as a snake. On the surface, one would think she is cunning and mischievous, however this is only the tip of the iceberg in this particular characterization. We also hear that the Hagar has an "Anaconda love" for Milkman, providing the reader with a strangling image of love. A love in which death seems to be a real possibility, and is such as Hagar attempts to kill Milkman several times.

The biblical references, and seemingly to Milton are also factors in Morrison's reference to snakes. Pilate is not inherently evil like the snake (Satan) in Genesis. However, at least to Macon, it is important that Milkman believe she is. Certainly, such a comment has an effect on Milkman's attitudes towards Pilate. These effects, however, do not stop Milkman's desire to see her. Milton also seems to be present in the impression Morrison wants the reader to understand through the reference to the snake. Perhaps, Morrison is trying to point out that Pilate is misunderstood, that she was the benefactor of an unfair situation like the snake Milton portrayed. In any case, the reference is thought provoking and adds to the novel on more than one level. It has a negative meaning on the surface, an evil appearance through the bible, and a more introspective viewpoint from Milton. This makes the reference very diverse and meaningful in the perception of the characters of Pilate and Hagar.

Morrison even includes some Greek Mythology about animals in her novel. The reference to the white bull parallels a Greek myth in which Zeus transforms himself into a white bull in order to seduce Europa, a princess he fell in love with while she was picking flowers. Although the connection is not as strong as some of the other references to animals, this seems to emphasize Pilate's love of nature. Therefore, this is another important reference to embellish characterization.

Greek mythology was a subject that Toni Morrison likely knew a great deal about, since she studies the classics, and is apparent in this novel. Shalimar tried to help his son fly like he did but failed and he fell. This is remarkably similar to the tale of Icarus who flew too close to the sun and fell to his death. While there may be more references to Greek mythology than these two examples, they are the most prominent within the book.

The last reference between flight, birds, and Milkman is through a peacock. This is mentioned twice within the book. The first time it's mentioned Guitar and Milkman wanted to kill it and eat it. However, Milkman thought better of the idea and decided not to. The second reference was near the end when Milkman was just about to begin his flight. The peacock flew away, the same as Milkman. This is somewhat remarkable since peacocks are flightless birds. Though, in any case, this does provide us with a wonderful parallel between the peacock and Milkman, and also helps to emphasize and finalize the theme of flight that Morrison portrayed throughout the novel.

Dogs were also used to make reference to the White race. Towards the beginning of the book it was said that "{White people would} kill a nigger and comb their hair at the same time. But I've seen grown white men cry about their dogs" (Pg. 5) More importantly though, Circe watched the dogs of her previous white slavers. This is significant because it shows us the power that the white race still had over the black race. Symbolically, it portrayed the white man as not self-sufficient, greedy, and opportunistic animal. This also seemed to be the time in which Milkman dropped his preference of the white man and adopted a more black cultural perspective.

The last reference to animals that I will include is in the very end when Milkman goes hunting. They are chasing a bobcat and eventually kill it. The ironic thing is that normally a Bobcat is a predator, not prey. This hunt is also symbolic of Guitar's hunt for Milkman. The bobcat may well have been hunting himself, when he found himself trapped by hunters. Similar to how Milkman was hunting for his past, and in turn was hunted by Guitar. Morrison's parallel here was one of my favorites in the book, and emphasized Milkman's dire situation while foreshadowing the fate to which he would eventually succumb.

Though Morrison's use of animals encompasses a great variety of writing techniques, these references are invaluable. Whether they were parallels, characterizations, histories, or mythologies, Morrison brought her book to life with these references. Each reference she made showed the reader more about characters, events, and history within the novel, as well as insight on Morrison herself. With these references she emphasized themes, created symbolisms, and brought the book alive. Without the use of animals as symbols she would have lost a great deal of richness from her book.

Please note that this sample paper on Song of Solomon is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Song of Solomon, we are here to assist you. Your essay on Song of Solomon will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Meno

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Chris Peterson

February 4, 00

Summary of Meno

The dialogue of Meno begins with Meno asking Socrates a question. The question is whether or not virtue is something that can be taught. If it is not taught, then do men possess it by nature or by some other way? Socrates says that he doesn't know the answer and that he doesn't know anyone who does.

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Socrates begins the investigation by asking Meno what he thinks virtue is. Meno responds by speaking of the different virtues of men, women and children. Socrates then methodically asks questions to expose that even in these different ideas of virtue there are certain overriding virtues such as justice and moderation that are necessary to being a virtuous man, woman and child. Therefore Socrates concludes that the virtue of all men, women and children is the same. So Socrates states that it would be well to add to the virtues of men, women and children the virtue of justice.

Because of this statement Meno states that justice is virtue. Socrates then shows that justice is not virtue but a virtue, just as roundness is not shape but a shape. This causes them to dive into the investigation of the nature of virtue. One can name virtues, but one does not arrive to the nature of virtue itself by this means. After Socrates shows Meno that this isn't the way to arrive at the true nature of virtue, he again asks Meno what virtue is.

Meno replies by stating that virtue is "to find joy in beautiful things and have power." Here, Socrates applies the principal of charity and states that beautiful things means good things. Socrates then shows that this definition falls short in defining virtue and that Meno has again tried to explain virtue by speaking of its parts. They conclude that they do not know what it is that they are trying to find.

They dive into a discussion on the immortality of the soul and Socrates shows that knowledge is a form or manifestation of recollection. This conclusion leads them to the concept of true opinion. One can come to something by two ways, knowledge and true opinion. If virtue is then a form of knowledge then there must be someone to teach it. They soon discover that there is no one that teaches virtue and conclude it is not knowledge. So it must only be found through true opinion.

Then Socrates summarizes the discussion and concludes that virtue is neither inborn nor taught. It must come only by means of true belief as a gift from the gods. It is not accompanied by understanding. He also states that they will have clear knowledge of this when they first try to understand virtue itself. But being out of time he leaves the question for another day.

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Genetic engineering

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Over the last 0 years, we have witnessed what can only be described as a biological revolution. Advancements in techno science, which began with the understanding of the structure of DNA and the mastery of genetic engineering, today enable us to change living things plant, animal and human.

However the origin of biotech started many, many years ago. This was when man first domesticated animals. In the mid-1800s, Austrian monk Gregor Mendel revolutionized genetic science by employing precise pollination methods and statistical analysis. Mendels pioneering methods allowed scientists later to determine how specific traits could be inherited into subsequent generations and to coax plants to swap traits they wouldnt readily exchange in nature. They used a living thing to help themselves. That's what biotechnology is, right? Using living organisms to help better the ways humans live.

For example, over the past 5 years physicists have developed revolutionary imaging technologies that have allowed us to see deeper and deeper into the materials and processes of life itself. Doctors are now using non-invasive means of looking into the human body to diagnose a wide variety of diseases including cancer, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, stroke, heart failure, and vascular disease. CAT (Computer-Assisted Tomography) scans combine X-rays with computer technology to create cross-sectional images of the patient's body, which are then assembled into a three-dimensional picture that displays organs, bones, and tissues in great detail. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scanners use magnets and radio waves instead of X-rays to generate images that provide an even better view of soft tissues, such as the brain or spinal cord. Ultrasound images, produced by very-high-frequency sound waves, can help doctors visualize a developing fetus, detect tumors and organ abnormalities, and identify women at risk of developing osteoporosis. Imaging technologies have also greatly helped in early detection of breast cancer, which claims the lives of nearly 4,000 American women each year. The deeper and smaller we see, the more we understand how life processes work on their most fundamental level.

During the 140s, Norman Borlaug, a plant breeder then working in Mexico, began what eventually became known as the Green Revolution in the 160s. Norman did this by using traditional plant breeding to produce new varieties of wheat. The success of the product was increased by manipulating the plants genes through breeding, and at the same time, manipulating the environment, through the addition of petrochemical inputs (such as fertilizers and pesticides) and homogenization (mechanical preparation of soil).

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Insect-resistant apples, long-lasting raspberries, and potatoes that absorb less fat are among the more than 50 plant products under study now that are likely to reside soon on grocers shelves. Though genetic engineering promises better and more plentiful products, genetically engineered foods may encounter a few obstacles to widespread public acceptance. Some consumers, along with a few advocacy groups, have voiced concern about the safety and environmental impact of these new food products. Some urge an outright ban on any genetically engineered foods. Others support mandatory labeling that discloses the use of genetic engineering. Still others advocate more stringent testing of these products before marketing.

From the standpoint of the Food and Drug Administration, the important thing for consumers to know about these new foods is that they will be every bit as safe as the foods now on store shelves. All foods, whether traditionally bred or genetically engineered, must meet the provisions of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.

The first genetically engineered whole product went on the market in May 14 when FDA determined that a new tomato that can be shipped vine-ripened without rotting rapidly is as safe as other commercial tomatoes. The Flavr Savr is the first ready-to-eat food product available to the U.S. public that used recombinant DNA processes. Its maker, Calgene, Inc., created the Flavr Savr on the premise that many consumers are not satisfied with most store-bought tomatoes, especially in the off-season. Surveys show that though 85 percent of U.S. households buy fresh tomatoes, some 80 percent are displeased with the quality of grocery store tomatoes.

If picked when ripe, tomatoes rot quickly. Though Calgene vine-ripens its tomatoes, the company solved the rotting problem by inserting a reversed copy--an antisense gene of the gene that encodes the enzyme that results in tomato spoilage. This suppresses the enzyme that results in rotting, allowing the tomato to stay ripe, but not rot, up to 10 days--plenty of time for shipping and sale. Refrigeration is not necessary.

Though FDA policy didnt require premarket approval of the Flavr Savr tomato, Calgene sought FDAs review anyway. The company also asked FDA to approve as a new food additive the protein that produces kanamycin resistance. This marker protein allows breeders to identify early in the gene-transfer process which plant cells have successfully incorporated the new trait. Inserting the marker confers resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin. This is a valuable tool when trying to figure out which cells have the new gene and which do not. But it also adds very small amounts of a new protein to diets of millions of Americans and raises concerns about issues such as antibiotic resistance.

A difference with recombinant DNA however, which can be a benefit but which concerns some, is the power of genetic engineering--the ability to transfer genes from a wide variety of species. Because the chemical makeup of DNA is similar in all living things, desirable genes from any organism can be inserted into a plant species. This provides the developer with a much larger selection of valuable traits. For example, one developer experimented with using a gene isolated from a fish, the winter flounder, to impart freeze resistance into a variety of tomato. Such research prompted concerns among some consumers, especially vegetarians and members of certain religious groups. They wondered if the process of inserting an animal gene into a plant somehow could create a vegetable that is part animal and should be labeled.

Whether genetically engineered foods succeed or fail ultimately depends on public acceptance. Early reports on the Flavr Savr tomato, the first recombinant DNA-derived whole food product to reach grocery shelves, were favorable. Calgene said sales in the products first two markets--California and Illinois--were a total success. Calgene chairman Roger Salquist said consumers responded with purchases and praise.

This seems to be a reoccurring problem for the world of genetic engendering. When living things are changed from what they would naturally be, people get upset. There has been quite a commotion lately about cloning, and that's where we'll head next in our exploration of the genetic engineering world.

In October of 10, the National Institutes of Health officially began the Human Genome Project, a massive international collaborative effort to locate the 50,000 to 100,000 genes and sequence the estimated billion nucleotides making up the entire human genome. By determining the complete genetic sequence, scientists hope to begin correlating human traits with certain genes. With this information, medical researchers have begun to determine the intricacies of human gene function, including the source of genetic disorders and diseases that have plagued medical researchers for years.

In July 15, Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell of the Roslin Institute in Scotland successfully cloned two sheep, named Megan and Morag, from differentiated embryo cells. The idea to clone sheep was arrived at by Ian Wilmut as an answer to a gene insertion project he was researching. At the time, time inserting genes into embryo cells was a difficult and tedious process. Few embryos survived the insertion of a gene, even fewer incorporated the gene into their genetic code, and even fewer organisms developed properly and used the gene in all of their cells.

II. THREE WAYS TO MAKE AN EMBRYO

In sexual reproduction a child gets half its genes from its mother (in her egg) and half from its father (in his sperm)

Cloning is an asexual form of reproduction. All the childs genes would come from a body cell of a single individual

Who is the clonal childs genetic mother or father? As we understand those terms, a clonal child wouldnt have a genetic mother or father, it would have a single nuclear donor. If a man cloned himself, would the child be that mans son or his twin brother? It would be neither, it would be a new category of biological relationship his clone.

Mathematics and computer science have greatly contributed to biomedicine through information technology. Much of today's imaging technology relies on microprocessors and software. Computers are also making it

easier for researchers to collect, analyze, and share data in research and in telemedicine, and to model biological systems to project likely outcomes more accurately. It would be impossible for scientists to sequence the entire human genome without the information processing power of supercomputers. And information technologies have provided essential tools to collect and analyze data for epidemiological research that helps us understand the

distribution of disease and to develop clinical and public health interventions.

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IMPROVISATION and FORUM THEATRE IN EDUCATION

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Improvisation can be seen as the art of creating a scene given only an idea of character, setting and conflict. The audience gives the actor(s) a specific situation that needs to be dealt with, where it is to take place and who is involved. What the character does with the given scenario is left up to the actor's imagination and ability to think quickly. Improvisation can be used for serious or comical purposes. It can be used to make a truthful comment about society, or it can be used to simply entertain an audience. When using improvisation for comedy, the actor(s) need the ability to add witty comments and physical comedy to their given scenario. Improvisation is an important aspect of theatre because it helps actors prepare for dealing with unexpected events on stage. The ability to think quickly will enable an actor to use a mistake made while acting to his or her advantage.

Forum theatre is very similar to the idea of improvisation. It is the creation of small scenes used to represent problems of a given community. These problems can be anything from domestic violence to racial or sexual discrimination. It is used to teach ways of solving these problems. The audience watching the forum theatre is invited to interact with the actors and replace characters in scenes. They are encouraged to improvise new solutions for the problems that are being addressed. Forum theater allows a student audience to get involved with the lesson by using their own ideas to see what will and will not solve a problem.

Improvisation can be used as a teaching tool. Teachers of any subject can ask students to prepare short scenes or skits to display their knowledge. Improvisational scenes can be based on any topic a teacher desires. The teacher can give the students characters and the setting and the students can perform made up scenes based on the subject they are trying to learn. This can help both the students acting and the students watching. The students acting will have to rely on their knowledge of the subject to provide them with the appropriate direction in which the scene should be taken. This allows them to apply their knowledge in a more entertaining way. Students watching the performance also benefit from the exercise because the visual image of the facts presented will help them have a better understanding of the subject. Some students learn best through visual experiences, and having the ability to see the subject being applied in the classroom will help them make the visual connection they may need to absorb the information.

Forum theatre can be applied as a teaching methodology in schools. Forum theatre is all about generating different ways to solve one problem. This can be useful in many school situations. For example, a teacher trying to teach students the importance of history can give a situation from a previous period of time, such as World War II, and ask the students to use their knowledge of the events to come up with a scene relating to the events taking place. Other students in the classroom can then suggest alternative endings of what could have happened during the war, or ways to have prevented it, and these would be played out by the students. This will help students apply their knowledge and understand of what really happened. It will also allow them to think of ways it could have been different. Also, forum theatre can be used to teach English subjects. Students can take on roles of characters in books studied. As an entire class, students can analyze the main conflict of the novel and use forum theatre to generate other solutions to the conflict, other than the one presented in the book. This will help them gain a deeper understanding of the characters and situations in the novel. While performing forum theatre in a classroom, students are required to explore their knowledge on the subject in order to create a relevant scene. The creative thinking of other students getting involved will help the class as a whole to explore the subject on a deeper level. However, forum theatre is also very useful in school social settings. If taught properly in schools, forum theatre can be used to help students solve peer conflicts. If students come across a problem while working or playing in groups, knowing how to creatively think of alternative solutions to the conflict can help prevent violence in schools. Students who are engaged in an argument will be able to think the situation through, put themselves in their peer's position, and think of a compromising solution to their problem that can work for both parties.

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Adam smith

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Adam Smith was born in Kirkcaldy, Fife. As a child, he demonstrated an absence of mind, which was to be a characteristic throughout his life. He was educated at Glasgow and Oxford, and in 1751 was appointed Professor of logic at Glasgow University. Eight years later he published his Theory of Moral Sentiments, which established his reputation as an author.

The Wealth of Nations, which had been about ten years in writing, was an im-mediate success and secured Smith's financial future. In the following year he made his home in Panmure House, which still stands in the Canongate.

Adam Smith founded the science of political economy. The basic doctrine of the Wealth of Nations was that labor is the only source of a nation's wealth. Smith advocated division of labor in the productive process, stressed the importance of individual enterprise and argued the benefits of free trade. The true wealth of a nation, he held, lay not in gold but in the achievement of an abundance of the necessities of life. He warned against unnecessary intervention by the state in this process.

Smiths major thesis in the Wealth of Nations was that, except for limited functions (defense, justice, certain public works), the state should refrain from interfering with the economic life of the nation, this policy is often called, "laissez-faire". He did not view favorably the motives of merchants and businessmen. "People of the same trade," he wrote, "seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices." He suggested, however, that businessmen seeking their own interest are led "as if by an invisible hand" to promote the well being of society.

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The position is supported in the Wealth of Nations by an elaborate analysis of how economic systems function and develop over time. Smith sought to show how competition in the marketplace would lead businessmen to supply the goods consumers want, to produce these goods efficiently, and to charge only what they are worth. He saw monopoly, whether private or state-imposed, as the evil to be combated, and competition as promoting the best interests of society. He further argued that economic growth, which depends upon capital accumulation and an increased division of labor, would be promoted best by private rather than public efforts. People would save and invest for the future because of the inherent desire of individuals to better their own condition.

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