One of These Days

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Revenge causes one to act blindly through anger rather than through reason. It is part of human nature to seek revenge against another human being. People easily succumb to revenge especially if they were in any way wronged or victimized by another person. In Gabriel Garcia Marquez's "One of These Days", the theme of revenge is presented throughout the story. The dentist, Aurelio Escovar, clearly has a history with the Mayor making the dentist want to seek revenge. The dentist gets revenge by using improper sterilization, prolonging the suffering, and intensifying the pain.

First of all, the dentist used improper sterilization. The instruments used by dentists should be properly sterilized before and after every use. However, this is not the case with the instruments used by the dentist in "One of These Days". For example, boiling water is used to sterilize the instruments, "He brought the basin of sterilized instruments to the worktable and took them out of the water" (157). The problem with this is that germs and bacteria can still exist on the instruments because no chemicals for sterilization are used. Moreover, these germs and bacteria can be transferred to the Mayor ultimately causing more harm to him. The end result is infection occurring even after the tooth is removed.

In addition, he prolonged the suffering. Even before the dentist knew the Mayor had an abscess he made the Mayor suffer by ignoring his dental request, "The Mayor wants to know if you'll pull his tooth." (156). Furthermore, the dentist took his time prepping for the removal of the Mayor's tooth, "still without hurrying" (157). The dentist knew the abscess caused a lot of suffering for the Mayor, but did not show any compassion to the Mayor. Even more, the Mayor's suffering had gone on for five days prior to seeing the dentist, "He had shaved the left side of his face, but the other side, swollen and in pain, had a five-day-old beard." (156). Of course the dentist noticing the Mayor's suffering did nothing to ease his suffering and discomfort because the dentist wanted his revenge to be bitter sweet.

Most of all, he intensified the pain. For instance, the dentist did not use any anesthesia, "It has to be without anesthesia" (156), implying that he just wanted the Mayor to feel lots of pain. In addition, he made the Mayor do most of the work in removing the tooth causing great pain and agony for the Mayor. Finally, the dentist touches the painful area, "grasped the tooth with hot forceps" (157) inflicting instant pain to the Mayor. No one would ever consider touching a painful area of their body with a hot item. Unfortunately, the dentist only had revenge on his mind and wanted to inflict tremendous amount of pain, "The Mayor seized the arms of the chair, braced his feet with all his strength, and felt an icy void in his kidneys" (157).

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Ignoring the health codes, extending the suffering, and increasing the pain are the methods of revenge used by the dentist. These methods of revenge are illustrated in the story by the interaction between the dentist and the Mayor. The Mayor showing up at the dentist's office provided an opportunity for the dentist to seek out his revenge on the Mayor. The whole ordeal of simply pulling out the Mayor's tooth is turned into ways of implementing the dentist's revenge on the Mayor. This is the dentist's method of obtaining retribution for whatever wrong the Mayor imposed on him.

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Is sport a level playing field?

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Many factors impact on the concept of sport being a 'level playing field'. Race and ethnicity play an enormous role in making sport as unequitable as it is. Both migrants and Black people face discrimination everyday for issues such as there 'natural ability' to perform well and there lack of interest in so-called 'Australian sports'.

Socio-economic status, accessibility and availability are issues that make sport even more accessible for some groups. Money plays a huge role in what sports people can play because of the huge membership and insurance fees that athletes in today's society are obliged to pay. Also, if people live away from sporting facilities this will also discount from their performance in an event compared to an athlete who can train in a stadium environment every day.

Gender and sexuality play what some may say 'the largest role' in sporting inequity. The discrimination faced by both males and females is by far the most controversial aspect of sport. Female athletes are still considered to not be as important in the sporting field, and both male and female sexual statuses are under constant scrutiny with rumours of people being homosexual becoming more common.

The final point in why sport is not a level playing field is the media's coverage of only specific sporting events. The media is the big business of today's sport and without it many sporting teams and events could not survive because of all the added revenue the media brings in with sponsorship deals. The purpose of this essay is to decide wether or not sport can ever be a level playing field? Investigation into this question has proven that sport is not, and never will be a level playing field.

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Females have never been given equal access to sport, their activities have never been treated with the same importance as males. Many attempts have been made to improve this. The imbalances between males and females have encountered long and stubborn resistance from a conservative male-dominated sports world. Stoddart claims that "Sport until recently has been unquestionably men's sport" (p14).

But as Stoddart argues

"Australian sport is not simply about sexual discrimination so

much as stereotyping of gender roles and attitudes, because

sport has been a major determinant of how men and women

see themselves in relation to each other" (p15).

Any person, male or female, stepping outside the standard sporting sexual roles was considered to challenge the pattern of normal social behaviour. To be masculine meant displaying physical strength, courage, assertiveness, leadership and organisational skills. Being feminine was associated with having passive, caring, dependent, supportive and emotional abilities.

The tendency for some women's bodies to be smaller and weaker than men's has been used to somehow justify excluding women from vigorous physical activities and to legitimise the 'natural' superiority of men's bodies.

Therefore, not surprisingly, some of the first sports taken up by women were tennis, croquet and golf, because these sports were seen to emphasise grace, non-competitiveness, and non-exertion.

Despite being proven false by research, myths about the natural weakness of women are still raised both obviously and informally to exclude them from using some sporting facilities and playing certain sports. Especially those involving vigorous bodily contact. This is evident when McKay argues that

"Women also have less access to sport than men because of

oppressive economic and legal structures and because

women's leisure in general is 'policed' by men" (p5).

Furthermore, although women have continually challenged the structure of society, they still have much less opportunity than men to get involved and stay involved in sport. For example, there are sufficient imbalances in the number and types of events available to male and female competitors at the Olympic games. As McKay concisely put it, "Fundamentally the major problem for women's sport is men's sport" (p5).

Sex discrimination still remains a pervasive feature of the sports world and to many people it will always be present. This pattern has been reinforced by the values, attitudes, and behaviour of women themselves in some cases. Although Nixon has stated that

"Reducing discrimination is not to make females equal

competitors to males, but rather, it is to give females the same

opportunity as males to enjoy athletics and to attain excellence

among equally capable performers"(p50).

Sexuality is also an issue in sport. Both male and female athletes feeling the pressure to conform to what society deems acceptable. In sport, many boys encounter a subculture riddled with a confusing array of heterosexual, homosexual, and homophobic values. McKay declares that

"Many males are also oppressed physically, emotionally and

sexually by sport and those who reject its macho aura are often

ostracised or stigmatised by males and females"(p55).

An example of this is the male dancers and figure skaters that are frequently subjected to ridicule and rumours about their manliness from both males and females.

Women are also frequently finding their sports being promoted for reasons other than the skills they possess. Brian Stoddart found that "Women's tennis was found to attract male viewers who like looking at pretty legs and figures as well as tennis" (p154).

Further evidence of women's inferior position in sport is the ever-present cheerleaders at men's events. According to McKay these females

"Dressed in skimpy costumes, even during inclement weather,

(Women cheerleaders) epitomise the dominant stereotype of

women as decorative and glamorous supporters of

men"(p54).

Allegations of homosexuality are levelled at both male and female athletes. Males are said to be 'playing like a girl' if they don't play as society deems acceptable. Women are also subject to societies jibes. Girls who play football or rugby league are often referred to as 'tomboys'. Once again, females are discriminated because they don't abide by what society deems normal feminine behaviour. As McKay says "Lesbianism is just one way women are marginalised and their efforts trivialised in sport"(p54).

Race and ethnicity are essential parts of sport and why sport is not and never will be a level playing field. The issue of 'blacks' being discriminated against is a very hot topic in sport discrimination at the moment. McKay has found that "Several sociological studies have shown that sport is just as racist as the wider social context it is placed in"(p56). Black male athletes tend to be over-represented in strength and contact sports such as football, but under represented in high status ones such as golf and tennis. Furthermore, McKay claims "However successful these black athletes have been, they are conspicuously absent from 'brains' positions (e.g, quarterback) and over-represented in 'brawn' locations"(p57). Black people are also under represented, if represented at all, in administrative, managerial, coaching and ownership positions in almost all professional sports.

When blacks become successful, in certain sports and events, their achievements are often 'explained' with elaborate racist mythologies. McKay found, that many people see blacks as having " 'natural ability' or 'rhythm' or some innate anatomical or physiological 'advantage' over whites"(p57).

Stoddart found that

"The enormous cultural emphasis placed on sport in its

Australian context means that the community at large has

judged the worth of culturally different groups as much by

there degree of adoption to traditional Australian games as by

there accommodation of other social institutions"(p158).

And it is clear that sport has kept diverse Australian cultural groups apart as much as it has united them. On the other hand, as supported by Stoddart

"The myth of sport in Australia being open to all has precluded

the idea that community groups such as Aboriginals might not

have access to or perhaps even be disadvantaged by it"(p16).

For most aboriginals, the resources of European sport have been as difficult to conquer as the other resources of European culture. The discrimination endured by the few successful hopefuls has been part of the discrimination encountered generally.

Stoddart argues, "Some people have argued that boxing is dominated by the 'cultural fringe' of any community, groups in economically and socially deprived positions"(p166). Boxing rarely provides a lasting social or economic escape for the cultural fringe. For aboriginals, that has proved even more the case than for many others. As Stoddart put forth, "It has been one of the few 'European' sports where aboriginals have featured prominently; sport, 'the great equaliser', has generally not treated them well"(p167). What it has done, for the most part, is to confirm that aboriginals are at a social disadvantage. In most other sports, cost, social status and education have worked against aboriginal success.

For many migrants, Australian games such as cricket take far too long to play. Cricket involves an undesirably long absence from the workplace, particularly if they were employed in a small self-run business. To many nationalities, soccer was their chosen sport because the soccer club was a major link with their expatriate community. In major Australian capitals there are German, Dutch, French, Italian, Swiss, Yugoslav, Polish, Czech, Maltese and Spanish soccer teams. To Australians, soccer is still considered a somewhat 'outsider' sport, with references still being made to the sport being called 'wog ball'. Today, Australian football and Rugby league provide alternative examples of how newer generations of migrants have seen a particular way to social acceptance through cultural adaptation in sport.

But many migrants cannot make it in Australian sport because many Australians are guilty of not acknowledging their achievements because the athlete is not of the right ethnic background to achieve success. Stoddart agrees with this, saying that

"The message here is that sporting prowess alone will not

guarantee social acceptance, contrary to the egalitarian myth;

such prowess does not always overcome other

discriminations"(p17).

Sport remains a true monument to the belief that sport creates equal opportunities for everyone in an open society even though the experience of aboriginals and migrants, as well as that of women and the financially disadvantaged, suggest that the reality is entirely different. Remoteness, poorer socio economic status and areas with limited facilities are also an issue when it comes to considering wether or not sport is a level playing field.

Stoddart stated that the myth of sport being "Open and accessible to all, irrespective of social or economic station"(p), came about early in the evolution of Australian society. It took firm root and, despite considerable evidence to the contrary, continues to flourish. Sport is also unethical in its fairness when it comes to both participation and access to both sport and facilities. Stoddart claimed that sport was used to

"Instil the required social values and conventions; teamwork,

loyalty, courage, obedience to the laws, and the rewards of

persistence, and different social groups established dominance

over particular sports"(p5).

Every sport known to man began as a target for one of the socio-economic strata's of society. Rugby Union evolved for the middle-class professional and semi-professional groups. Rugby league was distinctly for the working class males. Cricket, with the assistance of socially dubious professional players, became a sport for the upper-middle class. Soccer, on the other hand, was transformed into a game for the working classes, mostly as spectators.

Another level of inequity is the access to sporting equipment for the lower socio-economic groups. To play a sport regularly and seriously requires the right uniform, good equipment, and the ability to pay entrance, subscription, insurance and membership fees. Stoddart declared that

"From an early point in the social formation of Australian sport,

the purchase of a cricket bat, a tennis racket, a set of lawn

bowls or golf clubs represented a financial outlay of

considerable funds"(p).

It is for the above reason that many people would 'choose' to play, for example, football, where the costs were minimal rather than golf where the costs were excessive. The relationship between access and economic status in sport raises the question as to wether or not sport can ever be a level playing field, if some competitors are unable to afford the luxuries that others can. Brian Stoddart has rightfully claimed that

"Sport is not and never has been from the great classless

institution in Australian life; indeed, sport for many Australians

is a major area where class and status are most commonly

encountered. Perceptions about class and status are frequently

blurred by the illusion of sporting equality"(p55).

In sport, perhaps the most idealistic myth is 'all men are created equal'. Nixon states

"It is obvious that they are not and never have been. In all

human societies, people are born with different mental and

physical characteristics and capacities"(p).

Some people appear to be clearly more equal than others, with personal characteristics of intelligence, physical skill and physical attractiveness. However, Nixon also considers that

"People are not only born unequal, they become unequal during

their lifetime. A persistent feature of human societies is

patterned inequality in the distribution of social rewards such as

money and material possessions it can buy education, prestige,

athletic trophies, and fame"(p, ).

The concept of the poor achieving their dreams of becoming a sporting superstar are shown in Nixon's book

"Upward mobility is generally regarded as a core aspect of the

American dream. The 'rags to riches' myth occupies an

especially prominent place in the world of sport, for every major

sport has its heroes who were recruited from humble social

origins and rose to unimagined heights of social and economic

success"(p).

This idea is consistent with the sports creed to believe that the opportunity for success in sports is open to all. The achievement of athletic success comes to all who work hard, obey the rules and effectively demonstrate their ability. However, despite the dominance of such thinking in sport, the facts undeniably dispute its validity. This is because people in sport, as in society, for which it is an integral part, one can typically find discrimination. Nixon states that

"On the basis of social characteristics arbitrarily evaluated as

less desirable, individuals are systematically denied access to

positions in sport, especially prestigious ones; they are

systematically denied access to sports facilities, especially high-

quality ones; and they are systematically under rewarded for

their achievements in whatever roles they play"(p).

There are a variety of factors in sport, which contribute to the role strain making athletes susceptible to the temptation of taking drugs to fix all their problems.

The use of drugs, more often than not illegal ones, has become one of the more prevalent and more dangerous methods by which athletes have tried to resolve role strains created or exacerbated by the importance of winning. They also have to contend with the demand for consistent, high-quality performance.

There is a strong emphasis placed by society on the monetary value of being 'good' at sport. Combined with this the recognition that sports skills can serve as a means of earning a large amount of money for only a relatively brief span of time. The use of illegal drugs in the sporting arena leads to athletes having unfair advantages over others. An example being, the Chinese swimmers and Romanian weightlifters. Why these people choose to use these drugs is another story but the fact that they are being used to enhance performance negates the assumption that sport is a level playing field.

The media has a large impact on sport and what sports the public views. Stoddart argues, "The media until very recently have consistently served the dominant cultural view concerning the social purpose of sport in its Australian setting"(p84). The media have been one of the key social agencies in placing sport amongst the main conservative forces in Australian life. But as Stoddart revealed

"In a country so allegedly preoccupied with sport, there

is, in fact, a very narrow selection of sports covered in depth.

And the sports that are covered are invariably played by males

and, just as invariably, are 'traditional' games such as football

and cricket, rather than newer activities like windsurfing and

wakeboarding"(p85).

Sport has been an important media vehicle for carrying particular social attitudes born in the past. In short, the media has had a conservative impact on every aspect of Australian sport. Without television and the media's involvement in sport, many teams and sports in general would not be able to survive. This is evidenced in Nixon's book when he reveals that

"There is no way we could survive without television. We couldn't make it without

the income and we couldn't make it without the exposure (p61)."

The sports industry's dependence on national and local network television for commercial success can be considered somewhat unstable. This has occurred due to is the dependence on businesses to pay increasing advertising costs during television

sports programs. The media's effect on sport as a level playing field is obvious as teams that do not gain media coverage are therefore disadvantaged due to lack of sponsorship and commercialisation.

A large number of Australian sports have changed from a recreational pastime to a business activity. This has altered social attitudes towards sports. In today's society it is the people who watch the players who suddenly have the economic power that attracts the sponsor. As Stoddart reveals "'Show us market and we'll show you the money' is basic message for would be sponsorships beneficiaries"(p116). One basic fear amongst sporting authorities is that as Stoddart claims

"It might provide an avenue for upward social mobility to groups

that have none otherwise but that might eventually challenge

the established order"(p16).

The twist is, that the other side of the tradition continues. Many major sports groups concentrate on making a profit while largely denying the same right to their players.

It is for a variety of reasons that sport can never be a level field. Race and ethnicity cause too much discrimination due to people still believing that black people have an 'unnatural' advantage over every other competitor. Socio-economic status affects what sports people can play and disadvantages the lower economic groups because they cannot afford the equipment and fees that they need to pay to become successful at any sport. Gender plays a vital role because sport cannot be seen as a level playing field if it doesn't allow women to compete in contact sports. And finally, the media provides many teams with the coverage they need to survive but the sports that the media doesn't cover are extremely disadvantaged because they loose revenue and sponsorship because no-one ever sees their sport on television.

Sport will never be a level playing field because there are too many things that would need to change for sport to become equal for everyone.

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Crucible

If you order your research paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on crucible. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality crucible paper right on time.

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Arthur Millers play, The Crucible, is about the persecution of persons falsely accused of being witches in Salem, Massachusetts, in 16. Many people died in the village after a series of lies and unjust practices. Abigail Williams, after having had an affair with a married man, begins this cycle of lies and accusations in an attempt to get her lover back. Her character includes both power and anger throughout the play.

Miller shows Abigails power as complex from the beginning. When all of the talk about witchcraft troubles her uncle, Abigail thinks she should be the authority. When she says, Uncle, the rumor of witchcraft is all about; I think youd best go down and deny it yourself," she is showing her knowledge of social situations and giving her uncle, who is much older. Abigail also thinks of herself as superior to the natives of Barbados. When her uncle discusses her work for the Proctors, she says that they want slaves, not such as I. Let them send to Barbados for any of them! She is unfair against these people and her remarks reveal her arrogance. Finally, Abigails arrogant character is apparent through her statements to John Proctor about his wife Elizabeth. She says, Oh, I marvel how such a strong man [can be with] such a sickly wife. Abigail obviously thinks highly of herself she is worthy of Proctors love, but Elizabeth is not. Abigail shows a character of superiority by her authoritative, prejudiced, and snobbish remarks.

Abigail Williams also shows a tinge of resentment in the play. When Mary Warren confesses that the witchcraft is only pretend, Abigail is angry. She accuses Mary of being a witch, too. Abigails resentment of her friends betrayel causes her to seek revenge. After Abigails brief affair with John Proctor, she can not accept the fact that the relationship has ended. She says, I look for John Proctor that took me from my sleep and put knowledge in my heart!...You loved me John Proctor, and whatever sin it is, you love me yet! (4). This desperation causes her to resent both Proctor and his wife. The resentment leads to revenge when she accuses Elizabeth Proctor of witchcraft. Her resentment deepens when Proctor tells the court about their affair. Abigails resentment is apparent through her words and her actions.

Authur Millers development of Abigail Williams character in The Crucible greatly affects the plot of the play. Her snobbishness and superiority make many people believe her lies. Her resentment toward those that betray her influences many of her decisions. The authoritative, deceitful character of Abigail Williams is certainly unforgettable.

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Arthur Miller's "The Crucible" is a play about the Salem witch trials in 1860. These were classic examples of mass hysteria, resulting in the hanging of a great many respectable men and woman of charges of trafficking with the devil. They were convicted by people at least as respectable as themselves, largely on the evidence of four young girls who had been caught dancing in the moonlight and laid their dissolute behavior to the influence of Satan. Innocent people are accused and convicted of witchcraft on the most absurd testimony, the testimony of those who themselves meddled in witchcraft and are therefore doubly to be distrusted. Descent citizens who sign petitions attesting to the good character of the accused friends and neighbors are thrown into prison as suspects. Anyone who tries to introduce into court the voice of reason is likely to be held in contempt. No one is acquitted. The only way out for the accused is to make false confessions and themselves join the accusers. The character and the motives of all characters in this drama are simple and clear. The girls who raised the accusation of witchcraft were merely trying to cover up their own misbehavior. The Reverend Samuel Parris found in the investigation of witchcraft a convenient means of consolidating his shaky position in a parish that was murmuring against his "undemocratic" conduct of the church. The Reverend John Hale, a conscientious and troubled minister who, gives the premises, must have represented something like the best that Puritan New England had to offer. Deputy Governor Danforth, presented as a virtual embodiment of early New England, never becomes more than a pompous, unimaginative politician of the better sort. As for the victims themselves John Proctor can be seen as one of the more "modern" figures in the trials, hardheaded, skeptical, a voice of common sense (he thought the accused girls could be cured of their "spells" by a sound whipping). He was no great churchgoer. It is all too easy to make Proctor into the "common man". Proctor wavers a good deal, fails to understand what is happening, wants only to be left alone with his wife and his farm, considers making a false confession, but in the end goes to his death for reasons that he finds a little hard to define but that are clearly good reasons mainly, it seems, he does not want to implicate others. Abigail Williams was one of the chief accusers in the trials. Miller makes her a young woman of eighteen or nineteen and invents an adulterous relationship between her and John Proctor in order to motivate her denunciation of John and his wife Elizabeth. The actual conduct of the trials was outrageous, but no more outrageous than the conduct of ordinary criminal trials in England at that time. In any case, it is a little absurd to make the whole matter rest on the question of fair trial how can there be a "fair trial" for a crime which not only has not been committed, but is impossible? The Salem "witches" suffered something that may be worse than persecution they were hanged because of a metaphysical error. And they choose to die for all could have saved themselves by "confession" not foe a cause, not for "civil rights," not even to defeat the error that hanged them, but for their own credit on earth and in Heaven they would not say that they were witches when they were not. They lived in a universe where each man was saved or damned by himself, and what happened to them was personal. Certainly their fate is not lacking in universal significance; it was human fate.

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Great Gatsby

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"Time and Pressure"

In the movie "The Shawshank Redemption" the inmate Red says, "Geology is the study of pressure and time, that's all it takes really Pressure and time." The story The Great Gatsby, likewise, is a story of time and pressure. The main character of the book, James Gatz, better known as Jay Gatsby, constantly has pressure on him, through out the book. Much of this pressure is self-imposed, Jay Gatsby feels the pressure to recreate the past and uses as much time as it takes. In the book The Great Gatsby, the main character Jay Gatsby, is a symbol of time and pressure through his will to succeed and in his pursuit of Daisy.

Jay Gatsby shows that he uses pressure and time to succeed in his life and to make himself rich and powerful. One way you see the use of pressure and time by Jay Gatsby is when he was a helper on Dan Cody's yacht. That yacht represented everything good and wonderful in the world to the young James Gatz, who promises to do whatever it, takes to become like Dan Cody. This shows that Gatsby puts the pressure on himself to become overly wealthy and doesn't care about how long it takes. This also shows that Gatsby knows that all it takes is his hard work, or pressure, and time. Gatsby is also affected by pressure and time, in addition to using it. Gatsby's gonnections are constantly applying pressure on him to be on the phone and get new gonnections, and expect him to give as much time as needed. This shows that even Gatsby's work puts pressure on him and over time he makes money.

The topic of time and pressure in the book is also shown through Gatsby's pursuit of recreating the past with Daisy. Gatsby once again uses time and pressure to once again meet up with Daisy and attempt to recreate the past. Gatsby, after coming back from the war, he realizes that if he continues to put pressure on himself to find Daisy and puts pressure on himself to make everything perfect and recreate the past, he will eventually be able to do it, its just a matter of time. This also shows how Gatsby, the main character, has his life controlled by different types of pressures and time. Another example of pressure and time in Gatsby's pursuit of Daisy is when in Nick's house Gatsby knocks over the clock because of the pressure of him leaning on it. By having Gatsby knock over the clock from his pressure that is meant to show that time is weak compared to the constant pressure of Gatsby. This scene is also used to show that Gatsby, gently catching the clock, realizes how easy it is to fall off line, but you must still continue to give pressure and time, because with those two things, it will eventually happen.Help with essay on Great Gatsby

The topics of pressure and time are used in the story The Great Gatsby are shown through the main character, Jay Gatsby's promise to himself to become rich and successful in life and his attempt to win back the love of Daisy and recreate the past. Jay Gatsby is a self made man who works himself to the bone to make himself rich and successful. Jay Gatsby becomes so successful because he understands the relationship between time and pressure. Like Red says in The Shawshank Redemption, "Geology is the study of pressure and time, that's all it takes really Pressure and time." This is especially true in The Great Gatsby, where the knowledge of this connection can make the difference between fulfilling your dreams and living in defeat, between getting busy living and getting busy dying.

Please note that this sample paper on Great Gatsby is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Great Gatsby, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on Great Gatsby will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Managing Supplier Performance

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Case Study Managing Supplier Performance

Mancunian University are about to begin to let a contract for a full refurbishment of their catering facilities in the summer of 004

The University have received substantial funding for the scheme following identification of poor catering facilities as a major issue to the student body, particularly in the Postgraduate Business School which is a major source of income through the MBA programme

It is expected that the refurbishment to facilities at 8 sites, and budgeted at £6.8 million, will take place between the end of the Summer 004 term and the beginning of the Autumn term in September 004 a tight timescale which must be met

A project team has been appointed and you are to fill the role of strategic procurement advisor

Explain you approach to the project including

Organisation of the internal team

An appropriate bid process

Management of risk

Management of main and sub contractors

Measurement and management of the project timetable including a process for measuring critical path and slippage

Measurement of performance together with a performance management scheme to include penalties or performance bonus where relevant

Definition of Supplier Performance

Supplier performance measurement is the process of measuring, analysing, and managing supplier performance for the purposes of reducing costs, mitigating risk, and driving continuous improvements in value and operations. Common and consistent measurements can help companies focus resources, identify performance glitches, develop strategies for supply chain improvements, and determine the total cost of ownership (TCO) of supply relationships, products, and entire supply chains

Management of supplier performance starts at the beginning of the purchasing process. Incorrect decisions at an early stage (before award) can have serious and costly implications on performance later in the contract period.

In this scenario cost and time are of prime importance and failure to deliver on either of these will have serious repercussions.

Organisation of the internal team

The first process that has to be considered is the selection and organisation of the team. It is important that the team includes representation from all interested parties.

Traditionally contract management has been hierarchical in nature, which can result in a confused and fragmented approach with a high chance of errors. Successful management requires a co-ordinated cross-functional team, who will work together and apply their specific expertise to resolve each and every problem.

As the contract progresses it is likely that the membership of the team will change, in particular after contract award it is important that the contractor is included.

The contracting process goes through six basic stages (see below), during these stages the influence and importance of the team members fluctuates as their skills and expertise fit in with the requirements of the contract.

At the early stages the users and specifiers will have a large influence, and the team will require their expertise to design and specify the kitchens. In the middle commercial phase the emphasis moves to purchasing, finance and legal, whilst at the operations end the contractor and Estates function will be prominent.

The purchasing role sits to one side as indicated in the organisational tree below. The function here is to assist and advise the Project Manager, in this case a senior manager from Estates, and to moderate the influence of each of the other interested parties to ensure that the entire project is delivered without bias.

The team will include representative from all interested bodies

Estates Management of contract

Purchasing Administration and management of team

Finance Budget control

Catering Users

Postgrad Business School Customers

Maintenance Ongoing maintenance

An appropriate bid process

If the incorrect bid process is selected at the outset this can have can have dramatic and possibly disastrous effects later in the contract. It is therefore important to investigate thoroughly and to select the correct contract type for the work being carried out.

Although there are a large number of contract types they can be grouped into three basic types, Turnkey, Traditional and Management. Each type of contract has certain inherent advantages and disadvantages.

Turnkey

The provision of a total service or building ready for use. The contractor uses his expertise to deliver a finished product. Also known as design and build

Traditional

The customer determines the detailed requirements and the contractor delivers to these specifications.

Management

The customer identifies the general need and the contractor advises on the specification. The details are then jointly agreed and managed by the contractor.

The grid below shows the three basic contract types together with their strengths and weaknesses.

Contract type Time Money HSE Quality

Turnkey Good Good Poor Poor

Traditional Poor Good Good Good

Management Good Poor Good Good

From the above it would appear to be an easy decision, the main requirements for the refurbishment contract are

1. The contract is delivered on time and within a very tight timescale

. The contract is delivered within budget

It would not be good practice to only consider the two main driving forces, time and money and a method for considering other factors should be used. On the following page is a grid that has been constructed to allow an in-depth appraisal of the contract requirements plotted against the three contract types.

As can bee seen there are 10 criteria (in descending order of importance) which have been given an importance weighting out of a total of 100. Time and price are considered equally important and have been given 0 each followed by quality at 15 and so on until the grid is complete and the total weighting awarded is 100.

In the right hand part of the grid each contract type has been given a weighting, in this case three contracts are being considered and therefore the total weighting across all contracts for each criteria is 0 ( x 10), had there been four contracts it would have been 40 (4x 10).

This figure is then divided between the three contracts in proportion to the expected performance of the particular contract type for the relevant criteria.

The score is calculated by multiplying the priority weighting by the contract weighting. The scores are then totalled for each contract type.

As can be seen below the managed contract has the largest overall score and would therefore be the preferred choice.

Criteria Project Requirements Priority T y p e s o f c o n t r a c t

Weighting Turnkey Traditional Managed

Weighting Score Weighting Score Weighting Score

Timing Must be completed on time 0 14 80 5 100 11 0

Price Must be within budget 0 14 80 1 40 4 80

Quality High quality installation required 15 7 105 15 14 10

SHE High standard of SHE 1 5 60 11 1 14 168

Risk Avoidance Minimise risk by passing onto other parties 10 1 10 11 110 7 70

Complexity 8 sites requiring similar design 7 8 56 10 70 1 84

Variations Minor changes may be required during installation 6 18 7 4 0 10

Professional responsibility Direct contact to be maintained throughout contract 5 7 5 8 40 15 75

Staffing Some control of staff will be required 7 1 7 1 16 48

Responsibility Minimal contract links 1 6 11 6 1

Totals 100 1001 1 1087

Score = Priority weighting x contract weighting

Management of risk

Management of risk involves three key elements, identification of risk, formulation of a strategy to manage the risk and finally monitoring the strategy to ensure that the risk is mitigated.

An advantage of the above method of identifying the most suitable contract is that it identifies areas of risk. A low score, compared to the other contracts indicates that this particular contract type will have poor performance in this area.

In this case, management is the preferred method of contracting, but the score on price is extremely low at 80 compared to 40 for traditional and 80 for turnkey, indicating a high risk.

As this is one of the two most important criteria for the contract, it is important that this is managed from the outset, however as this has been discovered at an early stage it is possible to manage the risk to achieve a acceptable outcome. The later a risk is identified the harder it will be to manage the problem or to achieve the contract targets.

There are, of course, a large number of other risks involved in such a large and important contract and these need to be identified at an early stage. One of the main tasks for the team after deciding on an appropriate bid process is to identify risks and create Risk Assessment Checklist with information on the risk and solution.

It should be noted that even though time and quality have good scores it would be prudent to develop a strategy that monitors all performance criteria to ensure successful completion.

A useful tool in assessing the correct response to an identified risk is to assess the probability and then the consequences if that situation should arise (see below). High probability high consequence (Red) will require a detailed strategy to manage and monitor progress. Other areas will require less input, Orange will need substantial input, and Yellow areas will need monitoring and green areas limited or no management time.

Major areas of risk may require considerable management time and will involve a number of tools. In this case study, cost has been identified as a major potential risk. The team can start at an early stage to set up appropriate systems to moderate the risk.

A strategy to reduce the financial risk and may include the following

• Setting up of a sub group within the team to look at, and control cost. Once the contract has been awarded set up regular meetings with the contractor to review and control cost.

• Consideration of cost when creating the specification

• Spell out the cost requirements clearly in the tender

• Selection of a managing contractor who has completed other (similar if possible) projects within budget.

• Selection of a contractor who can work with, and be part of the team

• Minimise the number of variations and obtain full costing of the additional work before proceeding.

• Any additional cost to be authorised.

• Setting and monitoring of budget targets, particularly with Kitchen 1 as overspend at this stage will cascade to the following seven kitchens if not controlled

• Incentivise the project. E.g. By sharing any savings

Other risks would have to be identified and solutions found using a similar process as above. Once this is complete regular monitoring is required to ensure that risk is minimised.

One of the major areas of risk is the actual selection of a contractor, Selecting an inappropriate contractor will have profound consequences later in the contract. To assist in selecting the correct contractor you should create a Pre Qualification questionnaire (PQQ). This questionnaire is completed by all contractors responding to the tender and is used to select those that will go forward to provide a full reply to the tender.

See Measurement and management of the project timetable for a strategy to deal with the risk associated with on time delivery.

Management of main and sub contractors

Different types of contract will require different relationships between the contracting parties. It is apparent from the above that the ideal relationship will be a close one with reasonable amount of trust between the two parties.

Definition Trust (Mario Sako) Expectation held by one trading partner about another, that the other behaves or responds in a predictable and mutually acceptable manner.

There are three different types of trust

Contractual Trust Keeping promises and abiding by the accepted rules of business practice behaviour as a whole. Associated with arms length relationships in tactical profit and tactical acquisition.

Competence Trust An expectation that the partner will perform competently and in accordance with professional standards. Associated with closer relationships in tactical acquisition and strategic security.

Goodwill Trust Involves 'open' commitment a willingness to do more than is formally required and being prepared to accede to a request from a partner or to any observed opportunity that would improve performance. It is implicit that partners refrain from opportunistic behaviour. Associated with a cooperative partnership relationship in strategic security and strategic critical.

Unless there is likely to be a long-term relationship involving other contracts it is likely that competence trust possibly with a small amount of goodwill trust is the correct balance to aim for.

The relationship will change throughout the life of the contract. At the outset, during the tender and award period, it will be 'at arms length' this will be followed by a professional close relationship after award, during the set up and running of the contract and finally a more remote period at close out

Using the market management matrix is a useful tool to use to help understand how the two parties view each other. This is a high value contract with a medium to high risk and so will sit in the Strategic Critical quadrant of Supply Positioning.

We would therefore want to appoint a contractor who thought of us as Development or Core (see above).

Once the contract has been awarded the project tem would want to include representation from the contractor. It is important that the contract is involved with the team and particularly the project manager. The contract will require careful set and planning so that it can run smoothly it the mobilisation stage.

The management contractor will be responsible for all sub contractors, however the project manager would probably wish to have some input on the selection of any major sub-contractors.

A schedule of meetings will need to be agreed which out the outset may be some weeks apart as the finer details and contract schedule are worked out. These meetings will need to become more frequent as the mobilisation time approaches and will need be daily at the early stage of implementation to ensure that the first kitchen is running to schedule. If the contract is running successfully and the first kitchen is completed satisfactorily the frequency of meeting may reduce. The project manager is likely to lead these meetings with assistance from other members of the team when appropriate.

Measurement and management of the project timetable including a process for measuring critical path and slippage

Management of the timetable will be done using a gant chart. These breakdown the contract into individual operations, allotting a timescale to each. From this information a critical path can be drawn out.

Plotting actual achievements against this chart will show up slippage. It is likely that there will be some slippage at some time during the contract. Daily site meetings to monitor performance and to agree on a way forward are essential in a contract like this where time is of the essence.

Below are two gant charts showing the mobilisation phase of this contract. The first chart shows how each kitchen fits into the 14-week period allotted to complete the contract. This process allows the contractor to build up and phase down his work force. Allowing the contract to wind down with the last two kitchens (7 and 8) starting in weeks 5 and 6 respectively allows slippage of one week to be made up by starting both kitchens together in week 6.

The second chart shows a breakdown of each operation for each kitchen. His chart would normally be extended to show all kitchens, however each subsequent kitchen ( to 8) is only a repetition of kitchen .

The critical path is shown in red. The workforce will move from one kitchen to the next, which sometimes allows operations to float. Other operations fall on the critical path e.g. Gas, electric and water have to complete kitchen 1 by the end of week so that they are available to start work on kitchen at the beginning of week .

All the schedules need to be agreed at an early stage. It is important to ensure that the contractor has the personnel available, either through his own workforce or through agreed subcontractors. Checks on the contractor's workflow and order book should be done prior to award to ensure that he is not overstretched.

During the mobilisation stage monitoring progress and agreeing ways to reduce, remove and make good any slippage need to be done at a daily site meeting.

Measurement of performance together with a performance management scheme to include penalties or performance bonus where relevant

Measurement of performance is important and the method by which this is to be done should be indicated in the tender document. It is obviously important to measure performance of anything that has been identified as a risk.

Penalties are not allowed under English Law, however liquidated damages are allowable.

Measurement of performance against time is done using gant charts as discussed above, however the contract could include provision for the contractor to provide temporary kitchens should the contract not be completed on time. This clause would have to be discussed in detail but would include contingency to provide a mobile kitchen for each unit not completed by 7/0/04. A trigger mechanism could be performance against the gant chart at the end of week 10. Any slippage that could not be made good at this stage would indicate that the contract would be completed late and therefore the requisite number of temporary kitchens (including temporary buildings) would be made available by the contractor.

Obviously this will have an effect on cost, the contractor will need to take into account the cost of providing this should he not meet his time deadlines.

Another way of improving performance would be to provide a cash incentive. An additional payment could be made at a milestone if it was completed on time. For example an additional payment could be made at the completion each kitchen providing it was completed on time. This could be paid in conjunction with an agreed stage payment or held until the end of the contract and paid as a final bonus.

Measurement must involve the keeping of detailed records and they can be used

• As evidence in the event of a dispute

• To provide information for price negotiation

• Highlight areas of underperformance

• Provide an audit trail

Any gap between actual and expected performance should be brought to the attention of the contract manager and the contractor at the earliest opportunity so that the difference can be addressed

The records should include

• Master contract

• Correspondence

• A daily diary which will include

o All events

o Problems

o Delays and waiting time

o Accurate record of on site resource

o Photographs of progress, problems or incidents

o Instructions given especially details of any variations and agreed additional costs

o Minutes of meetings

o Work sheets and any other written information including arrivals and departures

o Performance against agreed KPI's

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The Main Characters of 'The Sun Also Rises'

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Jake Barnes The protagonist and narrator of the novel, Jake is a young American expatriate working in a Paris newspaper office. He is a veteran of WWI and has an injury from it which, it appears, has left him impotent. He desires Brett, with whom he developed a relationship while in the war hospital, but cannot have her because of his physical condition. His submissive pursuit of her often undermines his values and sense of self-worth. His other passion besides Brett is bull-fighting; he is considered a true aficionado of the sport. He spends his days and nights living irresponsibly and drinking heavily with his friends, none of whom he seems to care about too deeply, such as Robert Cohn. Overall, Jake represents the worst of the Lost Generation -- irresponsible, aimless, and bitter, his life seems over before it has begun.

Brett (Lady Ashley) Although the true antagonist in the novel is the lack of values and direction of the Lost Generation, Brett comes closest to personifying this malaise and provoking it in others as she consistently manipulates Jake and makes him undermine his sense of self. She met Jake as a volunteer nurse when he was in the hospital during the war, but she is now engaged to Mike Campbell. Brett is the strongest, most conventionally 'masculine' character in the novel, dominating her lovers and manipulating them like a bull-fighter; she even has a short haircut and refers to herself as a chap. However, in her carelessly dominating relationships with Jake, Mike, Cohn, and Romero, she appears to be dependent on them as well; she needs men to let her be dominant.

Robert Cohn A Jewish novelist from Princeton, Cohn the only central male character not a war veteran, and perhaps because of this he is the only one whose values have not been fully compromised. He represents American pre-war romanticism and idealism, and it is often painful to watch him pitted against a world that has lost these beliefs. He is romantically involved with Frances at the start of the novel, dominated by her as he was by his former wife. Quiet and willing to take abuse, he is disliked by everyone in Jakes circle, especially Mike, who resents him for his fling with Brett and the way he follows her around pathetically. Jake, who shares certain feelings of inferiority with Cohn, sometimes sympathizes with his plight, but frequently Jake enjoys it and does not intervene when Cohn is humiliated. Cohns one strength is that he is an excellent boxer, a skill developed to compensate for his inferiority complex.

Mike Campbell Mike has gone bankrupt through business associations with 'false friends'. He often gets drunk and grows possessive of Brett. Though he supposedly doesnt mind that she has affairs openly. He hates Cohn for his fling with her. He humiliates Cohn to his face and tosses off anti-Semitic comments at him behind his back.

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Bill Gorton Jakes writer-friend, Bill seems to waste his literary talent on witty, ironic quips and drunken socializing; he may represent Hemingways fellow Lost Generation writer, F. Scott Fitzgerald, or Hemingways own worst tendencies. Still, he bonds with Jake while they go fishing, opening up to an intimacy unavailable in the city, and at times he seems like Jakes only real friend.

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Algeria

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Algeria is located in northern Africa. On its northern border is the Mediterranean Sea. Most Algerians live near the Mediterranean Sea. Other countries surrounding Algeria are Tunisia and Libya on the east; Niger, Mali, and Mauritania on the south; and Morocco on the west. The total area of Algeria is 1,55 square miles.

In Algeria, there are three major land regions. The Tell (Arabic for hill) is 750 miles along the Mediterranean cost. Its average temperature in summer is 77° F. and in winter, 5° F. Annual rainfall is 16 in the west area of the Tell and 7 in the east. The High Plateaus are the second major land region and are south of the Tell Atlas Mountains. They range from 1,00 to 4,00 feet above sea level. There are shallow salt pools called Chotts which form on the plateaus. The average temperature is 51° F. in summer and 41° F. in winter. The third major land region is the Algerian portion of the Sahara, which covers 0% of the country's total area. The Sahara desert is the largest desert in the world. Algeria's largest river is called the Chliff. It begins in the Sahara Atlas Mountains and flows 450 miles north and west to the Mediterranean Sea.

The economy of Algeria is based on two products natural gas and petroleum. Its industry is both government controlled and privately owned. There are farms and small factories as well as service industries, such as hospitals, banks, and government offices. The mining in Algeria is for iron ore, lead, mercury and zinc. Even with manufacturing of construction materials, iron and steel, textiles, liquid natural gas, and refined petroleum products, thousands of Algerians work in France and other countries. Although farming in Algeria includes wheat, barley, dates, grapes, olives, potatoes, and citrus fruits, the country imports over one third of its food.

The people in Algeria consist of two different ethnic groups; namely, Arab-Berber (%) and European (less than 1%). While the majority of the European group is French, there are also Spaniards, Italians, and Maltese people. The official language of the country is French, but the Muslim population speaks mostly Arabic.

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Education in Algeria began when French colonial education was imposed on the country. The French language was taught with Arabic offered as a second language. In 14, the French and Algerian kids were separated, and this increased Muslim enrollments. In 16, the education system was a mess since teachers were trained hastily or hired abroad. The classrooms they used were mostly in empty French homes. So the Algerian authorities began to redesign the educational system. The reasons for doing this was to help literacy and provide free education. They made primary school enrollment a requirement and replaced French with Arabic as the language of instruction. They wanted to encourage students in the scientific and technical areas in order to benefit the Algerian industry. The World Bank loaned money to Algeria to help restructure the system; and by 18, almost 4 million students were enrolled in the -year basis education system. In the city attendance was 0%. In rural areas it was 67%. Almost all the teachers were Algerian and the language was Arabic. By the 10s, female enrollment was low because women were not expected to have jobs outside the home, and they married young. Even so, college attendance in Algiers was nearly equal between boys and girls.

Women in Algeria are still in a subordinate role. They are expected to play the role of wife and mother. Their rights to employment, politics, and independence are limited. Most of this is because an organization called Al Qiyam (starting in 164) promoted traditional Islamic values. Even though boys are not permitted to marry until age 18, girls are permitted to marry as early as 16. Fortunately, women's rights to higher education have improved.

The President of Algeria is elected every five years and may serve again only once. He appoints a Prime Minister, who chooses a Council of Ministers. There are two houses of government. The National People's Assembly consists of 80 members and each are elected for five-year terms. The National Council has 144 members who serve for six-year terms. Representatives of local assemblies choose 6 of the 144 members, and the President chooses the other 48.

The earliest inhabitants of what is now Algeria were Berbers. Berbers were a tribal people of unknown origin who raised cattle and hunted game in the area. Around 1100 B.C., Phoenicians established coastline settlements, including Carthage, in what is now Tunisia. During the third to second century B.C., a Berber chief became friends with Ancient Rome, and the Algerian kingdom of Numidia was established along Algeria's coast. Numidia became known as the "granary of Rome" because it prospered under Roman rule, and its large estates produced olive oil and grain. The Romans destroyed Carthage, however, in 146 B.C. and then made friends, or fought with, various Numidian chiefs. The Vandals controlled Algeria in the 5th century A.D., and by the 6th century the Byzantines ruled the land. In the 7th century, the Arabs took over and joined Algeria to the Muslim world. They converted Algerians to Islam.

Natural resources of Algeria include its chief products wheat, barley, milk, potatoes, citrus fruits, grapes, dates, meat, olives, and cork. There are trees in the higher Tell area that consist of pine, cedar, and various oaks. There is sparse vegetation, and so there are few animals. The only animals that live in Algeria are jackals, hyenas and vultures, although there are some antelope, hares, gazelles, and reptiles. Camel caravans are the primary means of transportation in the Hagar Mountains, and in rural parts of Algeria, pack animals haul people and goods.

Andromeda Oxford Ltd. and Grolier Educational. "Volume 1. Afghanistan-Bolivia." Flags of the World, 18.

Perkins, Kenneth J. "Algeria." The World Book Encyclopedia, 000.

Chapin Metz, Helen. Algeria, a country study. Lanham, Maryland Bernan, February 15.

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Analyse the extent to which language was an essential feature in the appearance and consolidation of Catalan and Basque nationalism

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Towards the end of the nineteenth century peripheral nationalisms began to form in the Spanish state, namely in the provinces and regions where languages other than Castilian were spoken. This essay is going to focus on the two most prominent nationalist movements that took place at that time within both the Basque Country and Catalonia.

It is an age-old belief that a people's individuality resides in its language and therefore the promotion and protection of language has often played an essential part in forming the basis of nationalist theories. One of the first writers to stress the importance of language as a marker of national identity was Herder who wrote 'language is the soul of a nation, without which a nation cannot exist.'

The vernacular is considered to be one of the most central aspects of identity by many intellectuals. Joshua A. Fishman writes in Language and Nationalism that;

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One of the major motivational emphases of modern nationalism has been that the ethnic past must not be lost for within it could be found both the link to greatness as well as the substance for greatness itself. It was on both these accounts that "the mother tongue became almost sacred, the mysterious vehicle of all the national endeavours." [Jaszi, The Dissolution of the Hasburg Monarchy]

In light of this statement I am going to discuss to what extent the languages Euskera and Catalan were vehicles in the appearance and consolidation of their respective nationalisms. I will look at the histories of the two languages and how they were utilised by various nationalist leaders to promote the nationalist movements within their regions.

Firstly I am going to discuss Catalan as a language and the role it has played in the Catalan nationalist movement. I will concentrate mainly on the importance of the Renaixença as a basis for the foundation of Catalanism.

Catalan, like French, Italian and Castilian, is a neo-Latin language. It is not 'a dialect of Spanish as many would have us believe. It is one of the great Romance languages, and it has a vast body of splendid literature, both medieval and modern, to prove it.' At its peak Catalan was spoken far beyond the borders of present-day Catalonia and its neighbouring provinces, in fact it was also the main tongue in parts of Southern France, the Balearics, and various enclaves in Italy, North Africa and Greece. During the eleventh and fourteenth centuries the language was so prestigious that it was considered to be on a par with Castilian and Portuguese within the Spanish Peninsula. The language was spoken freely amongst the Catalan-speaking population 'and even as Catalan's political power diminished in the fifteenth century, Catalan can boast a Golden Age in letters.'

In 1716 Catalonia lost the autonomy it had previously held when Philip V passed a Royal Decree to prohibit all Catalan institutions and customs. This included the suppression of the Catalan language. What was lost in cultural freedom was made up for economically and the region prospered from its industry. Catalonia became further distanced from the rest of the Peninsula and this possibly influenced the regionalist movement.

The growth of the economy in Catalonia continued in the nineteenth century and was paralleled by a cultural revival, namely within the field of Catalan literature. This revival was known as the Renaixença, and having originated in the 180s it formed 'part of the general awakening of romantic cultural nationalism and regionalism found in widely scattered parts of Europe'. The Renaixença was built on a strong literary tradition dating back to the middle ages ; it encompassed all the various art forms from sculpture to philosophy and spread throughout all Catalan-speaking regions. It was through this cultural revival that the first ideas of Catalonia having a distinct culture came to light. The poet Joaquin Rubio i Ors, who also went by the name of Lo Gayter de Llobregat, penned several poems in his mother tongue and later, when he published an anthology of his works, he expressed the need to revive this unique culture. As his works reached a wide audience it has long been considered to be 'the manifesto of the Renaixença.'

Catalan literature was maturing and Catalan authors were highly revered throughout the Peninsula. Joan Maragall, Joant Verdague and Angel Guimerà, the three leading Spanish poets of the time, all wrote in the Catalan language. The increased diffusion of Catalan through the region and the progress and achievements of Catalan authors within the Spanish state inspired thoughts of a nationalist nature. It became clear that the Catalan language played an important role in the regions separate cultural identity.

Throughout the intellectual development of the ideas of the Renaixença, language emerges as the central issue around which the Catalans based their claims to a separate identity.

It is considered that the Renaixença marked the birth of the Catalan nationalist movement; it provided a solid foundation upon which Catalanists could base their arguments and ideas.

In Catalonia the Renaixença provided an essential basis for the subsequent spread of nationalism. Its success and the rich output of Catalan literature ever since constitute a solid base upon which political nationalism could build its legitimacy.

Language was not the only catalyst in the birth of Catalan nationalism, according to several local historians 'Catalanism was generated by the confluence of four distinct strains; cultural revival, traditionalist Carlism, republican federalism and industrial protectionism' yet it was the most visible and soon became the pivotal instrument in defining Catalan national identity. In the first explicit nationalist publication in 1886, entitled Lo Catalanisme, Valentí Almirall 'singled out the outstanding aspects of Catalan character and mentality, and language began to move centre-stage, as one means of defining national identity among others.' He considered language to be 'the main visible manifestation of a people's personality'

Almirall was not alone in expressing the symbolic and instrumental role of the Catalan language within the nationalist movement of Catalonia. Following Catalanist leaders and sympathisers have voiced similar opinions on the importance of the preservation of language and consequently identity.

The Bishop of Vic, Josep i Bages recognised that 'language is the people…the thought of a nation, it is what characterises and portrays it…Among all social bonds, apart from religion, language is the most deeply unifying.

Ferrater i Mora, as cited in Daniele Conversi's The Basques, The Catalans and Spain, writes 'The Catalan personality can only be fully expressed through the intermediary of its language. When the latter recedes, the former fades, weakens and becomes corrupted…the Catalan ceases to be a Catalan…[and], in ceasing to be a Catalan…he/she ceases simply to be.

Once a nationalism has been established as a political movement it needs to draw upon a pre-existing definition of what forms that particular national identity. In the case of the Catalans this had already been put in place by the cultural revivalists of the Renaixença. Therefore it can be said that language and literature paved the way for the linguistic nationalist movement that followed. Moreover, since the language was widespread and accepted by all levels of society language formed an ideal symbol and instrument of cultural identity for the whole Catalonian population.

Catalan nationalists consistently focussed on the issue of linguistic rights. For them, as well as for the lay people, language was both a symbol and an essential instrument for the diffusion and expressiveness of their own culture. (emphasis my own)

I am now going to discuss the role of language within Basque nationalism. I will comment on how the vernacular has discontinuously emerged as a key issue within the Basque Country. Unlike Catalan, the Basque language, or Euskera as it shall be referred to throughout this essay, does not come from the same family as French, Spanish and Italian. In fact the exact origins of Euskera are not known and are often deliberated upon.

The Basque language is not an Indo-European tongue and no relation has ever been directly established between it and any other language.

Euskera is not a widely spoken language; its usage has deteriorated throughout the ages. As Teresa del Valle writes 'Euskara is a minority language within a territory that at one time was predominantly euskara-speaking.' Moreover it did not exist in a standardised form and at least eight different dialects were present in the region. People from different regions could not communicate with one another in their own language and loyalty amongst elites and litterateurs was low and so Castilian displaced Euskera as the principal tongue of the Basque Country. Another explanation for this displacement is offered by Stanley Payne, who writes;

Basque, which is essentially a primitive tongue, was ill suited to culture, administration, and diplomacy, so that vernacular Castilian or a variant thereof has been the official language of Basque territories South of the Pyrenees ever since the ninth or tenth century.

The Basque Country did not benefit from the type of cultural revival that the Catalans experienced through the nineteenth century Renaixença, nor could it boast a significant literary history. The language was regarded as being unrefined and as symbolising the poor rural communities of the region. Leading Spanish prose writers of the twentieth century, Unamuno and Pio Baroja, although Basque, chose to write in Castilian.

Basque literature was a frail growth represented mainly by a certain amount of poetry and essays; it altogether lacked the abundance, variety and distinction of neo-Catalan literature, nor would the primitive vocabulary and structure of the tongue have easily permitted more.

It is due to the sparse dispersion of Euskera within its own community and its lack of representation and achievement in the Peninsula as a whole that in the beginnings of the Basque nationalist movement language did not take a central role.

Basque nationalism arose in the late nineteenth century as a result of the imposed threats of rapid industrialisation and the abolition of the system of 'fueros' that they had enjoyed for centuries. Sabino Arana, the founder of Basque nationalist ideology placed the importance of language secondary to that of race. 'In his early formulations, language was not a core value and was replaced by race and religion.'

Dice Sabino "los elementos o carácteres de la nacionalidad son cinco 1, raza; , lengua; , gobierno y leyes; 4, carácter y costumbres; 5, personalidad histórica" (Bizkaitarra)

Arana used the history of Euskera to prove his theory of the Basques forming a pure race, the basis of Basque nationalism at that time. He used the fact that Euskera had not been influenced by any other language and that the Basque Country had never been invaded by the Moors to prove that the Basque race was pure.

To Sabino Arana…the purity of a language was a good indicator of the purity of a race. According to this logic, the patent originality of Euskera and its lack of 'contamination' by other languages convincingly demonstrated the purity of the Basque race.

He did not use language as a unifying element of integration, as had occurred with Catalan but rather as a means of defining 'us' from 'them'.

For the Catalans it would be a great glory if the Spanish government appointed Catalan as the official language of all Spain; on the contrary, if it were to do the same to Euskera, it would be for us the final blow of unavoidable death…'

Arana and his supporters believed that language was simply symbolic and it didn't matter if no-one could speak it. Race was a more important element. They wanted to maintain the division between the Basques and the newcomers, to protect the purity of the race.

Rather than trying to revive or encourage the spread of Euskara, he and his followers chose rather to use it as an ethnic boundary. His aim became not so much to preserve the language as to preserve a sense of 'unique' Basque racial purity.

Sabino Arana manipulated the Basque language in order to perpetuate its unintelligibility , a trait of which many Basques were proud. He complicated, distorted and 'cleansed' the language of any Spanish influences. He invented a 'purified idiom virtually alien from the language spoken by the common people' and 'established an alphabet with a different order.'

It was not until the Franco era that the role of language in Basque nationalism began to change. During his dictatorship Franco suppressed anything he perceived as being non-Spanish or as being distinct to the Spanish nation. Basque language was prohibited in schools and other public situations. It was not until the Basques realised that they were gradually losing their mother tongue that language shifted into a more influential role.

It was not until well into the Franco period that a reformation of Basque nationalism took place, with the language gradually emerging as the critical element of the identity/differentiation of Basqueness.

New theories arose detailing the necessity for language survival. A shift was made from racial concerns to a more cultural nationalism.

When Euskera ceases to be a spoken language, the Basque people will have died; and in a few years time the successors of today's Basques will be no more than Spaniards or Frenchmen. (Sarraith de Ihartza)

The Basques realised the necessity of rescuing the language from 'zealous nationalists' and placing it into the hands of language experts. 'The goal was not only to create a proper grammar, syntax and lexicon, but also to enhance its social status in terms of prestige, literacy, publishing and use in academic milieux.' This objective was aided by the creation of ikastolas, schools for the teaching of Euskera, which increased in number from in 160 to 160 by 175.

Today Euskera plays an integral role in defining what it means to be a Basque, and although certain sectors of the nationalist movement, namely ETA, have taken a violent turn they are still fighting to preserve and improve the status of their language as an indication of their individual identity and as a key element in nationalist discourse.

Language is often considered to be the most natural form of expressing identity and in regions where the use of the vernacular is increased separate nations may arise, as we have seen in the Basque and Catalan cases. The question is to what extent did the vernacular play an essential role in the appearance and consolidation of the respective nationalisms?

In Catalonia language is to a large extent the 'flagship of Catalan nationalism' The prestige of the Renaixença literature, the availability of a rich and lively language and the wide diffusion of the vernacular, (over 5 million people speak Catalan ) greatly facilitated the Catalan nationalist movement. Language, unlike in the Basque case, always played a constant and pivotal role in Catalanism and it is this continuity that provided the movement with such strength and stability.

Catalonia was conceived as a nation by virtue of its linguistic distinctiveness, and hence the relationship between language and nation was always central to all nationalist discourse. (emphasis is my own)

Even though, like Euskera, the use of Catalan was banned under the two dictatorships of the twentieth century, it survived due to the widespread use it enjoyed before its suppression. The majority of Catalans never stopped using the language in their private lives and this benefited the nationalist cause. It also helped that the language had been 'fully standardised at the beginning of the twentieth century by Pompeu Fabra, and is now universally accepted by all Catalans.'

Catalanists never ceased to promote the importance of their language as an indicator of national identity in their nationalist discourse, as Prat de la Riba stated;

We saw that Catalonia had a language, a law, an art of its own, that it had a national spirit, a national character, a national thought Catalonia therefore was a nation.

On the other hand in the beginnings of Basque nationalism language always played a secondary role to that of race. Sabino Arana manipulated Euskera, as he had done other symbols of the Basque nationalist movement, such as the name, Euskadi, the flag and the anthem, to support his ideas of a pure race. In doing so he created much confusion and fragmentation within Basque nationalism. He was not concerned with the preservation of the language as a symbol of identity, he was more preoccupied that other 'races' did not learn the language. He went as far as to say that 'if our invaders were to learn Euskera, we would have to abandon it, carefully archiving its grammar and dictionary, and dedicate ourselves to speaking Russian, Norwegian, or any other language, as long as we were subject to their domination.'

It was not until the Franco period and the foundation of ETA that the Basque movement took on a more ethnonationalist approach. 'To etarras, Euskera is the maximum expression of the national personality' and 'a central cultural prop, a besieged form of distinctiveness which was being attacked by the Francoist regime and which had to be maintained.'

Although language played a secondary role in the foundation of the ideology of Basque nationalism it played a central role in its preservation. When the Basque movement re-emerged as a type of ethno-linguistic nationalism, 'the feeling for the language as a symbol of belonging to a social group, with a differentiated collective identity, led individuals who had never spoken it to learn Basque.' This led to the foundation of various Euskera-teaching institutes, such as the ikastolas, which over the years have helped to foster the nationalist movement.

The main difference between the two nationalisms discussed in this essay is that whereas the Catalans used their language to integrate the 'immigrants' or new-comers to the region, thus expanding the use of Catalan and increasing its social status, the Basques chose to use Euskera to exclude any non-Basque people. The Catalans stayed loyal to their language throughout the centuries and as a result they have managed to forge a link between their national identity and their language that appears unbreakable. Today the Basque nationalists have moved away from any ideologies based on race and they too stress the central importance of language in their national identity. 'It appears that language, rather than race, can offer better prospects for successful ethnonationalist mobilization.'

Bibliography

Balcells, Albert. Catalan Nationalism Past and Present. Macmillan. Basingstoke, 16.

Conversi, Daniele. The Basques, The Catalans and Spain. Alternative Routes to Nationalist Mobilisation. Hurst & Company Ltd. London 17.

Conversi, Daniele. Language or race? The choice of core values in the development of Catalan and Basque nationalisms. Ethnic and Racial Studies, Volume 1. 10.

Fishman, Joshua A. Language and Nationalism, Two Integrative Essays. Newbury House Publishers. Massachusetts, 17.

Henderson, Tracy. Language and Identity in Galicia in Mar-Molinero, Clare & Smith, Angel (eds), Nationalism and the Nation, Competing and Conflicting Identities. Berg, Oxford 16.

Larronde, Jean-Claude. Sabino Arana in Pablo, S de (ed), Los nacionalistas Historia del nacionalismo vasco, 1876-160, Fundación Sancho el Sabio, Vitoria, 15

MacClancy, Jeremy. Bilingualism and Multinationalism in the Basque Country in Mar-Molinero, Clare & Smith, Angel (eds), Nationalism and the Nation, Competing and Conflicting Identities. Berg, Oxford 16.

Mar-Molinero, Clare, The Role of Language in Spanish Nation-building in Mar-Molinero, Clare & Smith, Angel (eds), Nationalism and the Nation, Competing and Conflicting Identities. Berg, Oxford 16.

Payne, Stanley. Catalan and Basque Nationalism, Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 6 Part 1, 171

Tejerina Montaña, Benjamin. Language and Basque Nationalism in Mar-Molinero, Clare & Smith, Angel (eds), Nationalism and the Nation, Competing and Conflicting Identities. Berg, Oxford 16.

Terradas, Ignasi. Catalan Identities in Herr, Richard & Polt, John H.R.(eds), Iberian Identity; Essays on the Nature of Identity in Portugal and Spain, Berkeley Institute of International Studies, USA 18

Valle, Teresa del, Basque Ethnic Identity at a Time of Rapid Change in Richard & Polt, John H.R.(eds), Iberian Identity; Essays on the Nature of Identity in Portugal and Spain, Berkeley Institute of International Studies, USA 18

www sit-edu-geneva.ch/minority_languages_in_spain.htm

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