The Flying Tigers

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Introduction

Although there were several acts of heroism during World War II, few, if any, can compare to what the Flying Tigers did for the oppressed people of China. The Flying Tigers were a motley crew of army pilots, mercenaries, and other men from all walks of life who worked together to accomplish one goal, to protect the Burma Road, China's lifeline to foreign aid. This paper will detail the history of the Flying Tigers in their heroic fight for the Chinese people's freedom.

While the rest of the world was caught up in the struggles of Europe, the Japanese Army started to attack the Chinese homeland in a play for resources and land. Although the Chinese Army had an enormous number of soldiers, most of them were unarmed and without proper training. Therefore, they stood no chance against the well equipped and battle hardened Japanese Army. In addition, the Japanese Air Force was wreaking particular havoc on Chinese cities and civilians. The Chinese Air Force (CAF) was flying junk planes that for practical purposes only provided the Japanese Air Force with extra target practice. The CAF's leaders knew they needed outside help in order to stand a chance against the Japanese. They sent scouts to America to find airmen qualified to survey their air force and make recommendations.

One of the CAF's scouts, Colonel Mao Pang Chu, attended a performance of the Three Men on the Flying Trapeze. This Army Air Force group performed flying stunts at air shows. Colonel Mao was so impressed that he offered all three pilots jobs on the spot. Initially all three refused. However, several months later the group's organizer, Claire Lee Chennault, retired. When the Chinese made another offer, he accepted. Soon he was in China where he began a whirlwind tour that took him all through the country. While he was surveying the Luoyang airfield, reports were received of Chinese troops skirmishing with the Japanese. The skirmish soon became a battle for the control of Beijing, the capital. During this moment of urgency, Chennault offered his services to the CAF. Soon he was telegramed orders to take control of the CAF's leading squadrons stationed in Nanchung. While there, he learned of the Chinese airmen's inability to fly. In addition, only a third of their airplanes was flight worthy. Chennault began training Chinese pilots, and the CAF improved drastically.

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Soon the Chinese got the chance to show off their new skills. During a raid in which the Japanese sent 1 bombers against Beijing, the CAF managed to destroy all of them before they reached their targets. This came as a great surprise to the Japanese generals who considered the Chinese pilots to be inferior. Victories became more difficult later in the war, however, when the Japanese began using a newly designed plane called the Zero. Faster than any other plane at the time, the Zero was also more maneuverable. With its new plane the Japanese air force tore the fledgling CAF to shreds. In 141, Generalissimo Chiang once again sent emissaries to the United States asking for aid. Chiang wanted American planes and pilots to fight the Japanese, who were threatening to destroy China's supply route to the outside world the now famous Burma Road. Chiang promised to pay the pilots $600 a month, plus a bonus of $500 for every Japanese airplane shot down. This was approximately three times the amount pilots were earning at the time. Chiang also offered to pay $50 a month to ground crew members willing to enlist.

When Chiang's request was presented to President Franklin Roosevelt, the President signed an Executive Order that authorized the creation of the American Volunteer Group (AVG) and extended Lend-Lease aid to China. Chennault, who had returned to the U.S. to recruit pilots and get more planes, became head of the AVG. However, because the U.S. was still at peace with Japan, a middleman, or a recruitment company based in China was needed. The private agency that was used was CAMCO (Central Aircraft Manufacturing Co.). CAMCO hired pilots and ground crew to perform non-combat services. However, the American pilots really flew for the CAF. As soon as pilot groups were assembled, they were shipped out in civilian clothes to Rangoon in Dutch passenger liners. From Rangoon, the pilots were flown immediately to the air base at Kunming.

During the following monsoon season the Kunming base became unusable. The AVG pilots were glad to leave it behind because of the intense heat that had been difficult for them to adjust to. The solution was to renovate a deserted British airfield outside of Toungoo. Soon, it was transformed into a bustling airfield. But, Chennault still faced many problems. First, although he had some experienced and qualified pilots, the majority were unqualified, and some had not flown in a year. In fact, during routine training maneuvers one pilot managed to crash three planes in one day. Second, there was a serious lack of good equipment. All of America's newly produced planes were being sent to Britain to aid them in their battle against Germany. Because China was of little strategic importance to the U.S. and its major allies, initially the AVG was sent the old and often defective planes that Britain rejected. However, once the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor in December of 141, everything changed. China was now seen as a potential ally that could halt Japanese advancement. Therefore, Chennault no longer had to disguise his motives in China.

Chennault began receiving the Curtiss P-40C Tomahawk, the newest American plane, designed for coastal defense. The Tomahawk had a top speed of 40 mph, with two .50 caliber machine guns in its nose and four 7. mm. guns in the wings. Although the Tomahawk was the best America had in 141, there were several drawbacks compared to Japanese planes. For instance, the Tomahawk was slower than the Japanese fighters and could not fly as high. Lacking a supercharger, it could not fly higher than about 0,000 feet. Therefore, Chennault had to devise tactics that would play to the Tomahawk's strong points - its fast diving speed (500 mph) and its powerful arsenal of machine guns. Against the faster and more maneuverable Japanese planes, Chennault's strategy was to fly above the enemy, then dive and open fire. This scattered the Japanese, making them easier to destroy. Chennault also advised his pilots to avoid dogfights with the faster and more maneuverable Japanese planes.

Chennault's pilots got the first chance to test their skills in late December. The Japanese sent light bombers against Kunming in a routine raid. This time, however, the AVG was prepared. In the ensuing battle, the AVG pilots destroyed four light bombers and damaged several more while sustaining no casualties of their own. The AVG had been put to the test, and it had passed with flying colors. A newsman stationed in Kunming to watch the rumored American squadron picked up the story and immediately radioed it to Washington. Although The New York Times did not make much of the story, Time Magazine published it on the front page. The headline was "Blood For the Tigers." The nickname "Flying Tigers" came from the ancient Chinese proverb,"Giving wings to a tiger," in other words, bestowing more power to an already powerful beast (speaking about the relationship between China and the AVG). During the next seven months the Flying Tigers engaged in many battles in defense of the Chinese people. They destroyed a total of 7 enemy planes, with only 16 losses of their own. Unfortunately, on July 4th, 14, the AVG was disbanded by top military brass in Washington. Most of the members of the Flying Tigers never received any public medals or honors because many considered them mercenaries. Some Flying Tiger members stayed in China with Chennault who later became a general in the U. S. Army Air Force. In 14, he was given command of the new 14th Air Force, based in China. Though The Tigers did not get the recognition they deserved, they are commemorated in the insignia of the 14th, a winged Bengal tiger. The 14th remained throughout the war to help protect China's mainland.

Conclusion

I believe that the Flying Tigers' service to the Chinese and American people will never be fully recognized. If the Flying Tigers had not defended China through the crucial period of seven months before they were disbanded, the Japanese would not have halted their advancement into China and soon would have had a straight path to their Axis allies. This would have been a defining blow to the Allies' fragile war plan. Although the original Tigers were drawn in by promises of money and glory, they fought for an honorable cause, and they fought with dignity. I hope that the sacrifices the Flying Tigers made will never be forgotten by the American people. I would like to conclude with a quote from Generalissimo Chiang.

General Chennault and his company of air knights will always be remembered by the Chinese people as comrades in arms, and as the friendly representatives of a friendly people.

With General Chennault, Robert B. Hotz, Coward-McCann, Inc., New York, 14.

Flying Tigers, Daniel Ford, Smithsonian Institution Press, Inc., Washington, 11.

The American Volunteer Group, 'The Original Flying Tigers' by Ed Rector, nd Sqdrn, Vice Squadron Leader. An article published on www.flyingtigersavg.com.

Old Leatherface of the Flying Tigers, the Story of General Chennault, Keith Ayling, The Bobbs-Merrill Company, New York, 145.

Interview with Darrell Snider, January 00, a member of the 45th Squadron, 08 Bomb Group, part of the AVG.

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Cloning

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Paper on Cloning by Zubair Iqbal and Ahmed Atiq.

Scientist clone cells by letting a single cell divide into a population of genetically identical cells. In this method scientist put the original cell in a dish containing culture medium which is nutrients needed to keep a cell alive. Then the process of mitosis produces genetically identical offspring. In blastomere separation, scientists fertilize an egg cell with a sperm cell in a dish. The embryo is allowed to divide until it forms a group of about four cells. Scientists remove the outer coating of the embryo and place it a special solution that causes the individual cells of the embryo, blastomere, to separate. Scientists then put each blastomere in society, where it forms an embryo containing the same genetic makeup as the original embryo. Each new embryo can then be put into the uterus of a replacement mother to develop during a normal pregnancy.

Another way is called blastocyst divisions in which scientist allow a fertilized egg to divide until it forms a group of about to 150 cells. Then they split blastocyst in two and plant the two halves into the uterus of a replacement mother. Then the two halves develop as identical twins. The two mentioned above need to have the genetic material of the mother and the father but in somatic cell nuclear transfer you only need one parent. Scientists transfer the genetic material from a donor's somatic cell, any body cell other than an egg or sperm cell, to an egg cell with its nucleus.

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Scientist have cloned the dolly sheep by the method of somatic cell nuclear transfer. But later they found out that dolly had arthritis. Also the other cloned animal such as mice suffered more illnesses and died at about half the age of normal mice. You can use cloning in a good way and in a bad way. It depends on why the person is cloning.

Benefits of cloning.

• More people would be soldiers. If you clone cows and other useful animal, they can help in agricultural material.

• To increase the population of endangered species

• Give couples a chance to have children who happen to be infertile.

• To create organs that would not be rejected by its recipient.

• Cloning will also enable us to understand why nervous cells, unlike the others in the human body, dont multiply.

Downfall of cloning.

• Goes against Islam.

• Many creatures get illness and other diseases because of cloning.

• People might use this in advantage of killing innocent and controlling the world.

• It could have emotional problems. Especially if you're cloning human.

Sources

• Encarta.com

• Globalchange.com

• chilli.net.au/~science/

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Theory X and Theory Y

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Theory X and Theory Y Today

Douglas Mac Gregor suggested that there are two different ways in which we can look al workers' attitudes toward work. Each of these views, which Mac Gregor labeled Theory X and Theory Y, has implications for management.

Theory X

According to Theory X, people do not really like to work, so they must be "coerced, controlled, directed, threatened with punishment" to get them to work. The average worker avoids responsibility, is unambitious and wants security more than anything else. Management based on Theory X is paternalistic at best and, at very least, authoritarian. Rewards and punishment are assumed in this theory to be the key to employee productivity.

These assumptions lie behind most organizational principles today, and give rise both to "tough" management with punishments and tight controls, and "soft" management which aims at harmony at work. Both these are "wrong" because man needs more than financial rewards at work, he also needs some deeper higher order motivation, the opportunity to fulfill himself. Theory X managers do not give their staff this opportunity so that the employees behave in the expected fashion.

Theory Y

Theory Y is a more generous view of human nature. It sees "physical and mental effort in work to be as natural as play or rest", and it recognizes self-direction instead of external control as the principal means of securing effort. Control and punishment are not the only ways to make people work, man will direct himself if he is committed to the aims of the organization. If a job is satisfying, then the result will be commitment to the organization. Imagination, creativity and ingenuity can be used to solve work problems by a large number of employees. According to Theory Y, under the proper conditions, people will accept and even seek responsibility. Employees have a much greater capability for problem solving than most organizations realize. Management based on Theory Y relies on a worker's achievement-oriented motives and his or her desire for self-fulfillment rather than on sheer managerial authority. Theory Y calls for developing organizations in which employees can best fulfill their goals by working toward the success of the organization.

Conclusions

Theory X may not be altogether wrong, but certainly it is no longer enough. Theory Y is difficult to put into practice on the shop floor in large mass production operations, but it can be used initially in the managing of managers and professionals. Staff will contribute more to the organization if they are treated as responsible and valued employees

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THe Human System (story)

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The Digestion of Larry the Liver Sandwich

Larry, the Liver Sandwich, consists of lettuce, tomato, ketchup, butter, bread, onions, mayonnaise, and of course liver! Unfortunately, Larry is deliciously eaten by a human, and must be digested by the body so that the body can use the substances in the sandwich. The main nutrients found in the materials making up the sandwich are amino acids, found in the tomato and liver, carbohydrates, found in the onions and bread, water, found in the vegetables, lipids/fats, found in the butter and mayonnaise, and vitamins, found in all the vegetables. Dietary fiber is also found in some of the substances such as onions, lettuce, and bread. From the moment a human bites into the sandwich, the digestion process begins.

The food undergoes a form of mechanical digestion, in the mouth. The teeth of the human bite, and break down the food into smaller pieces. This is a form of mechanical digestion. Salivary glands in the mouth produce secretions, through ducts (tiny tubes), that are mixed with the food. The salivary glands in the mouth are called parotid gland, (lies at the sides of the face) sublingual gland (lies beneath the tongue), and submandibular gland (lies beneath the posterior floor of the oral cavity). The saliva contains water and an enzyme called salivary amylase that breaks down the ester bonds between the sugar molecules of large starches into smaller starches or maltose. Parts of the bread, onion and other bits having the presence of starch, would be broken down into smaller starches or maltose. The saliva also dissolves solid food to make it susceptible to the action of later intestinal secretions, and lubricates the mouth and esophagus for the passage of solids. Because the food in the mouth does not remain in the mouth for a long period of time, the food particles are not fully digested.

The tongue, a muscle that rolls food into a swallowable sized ball called a bolus, pushes it to the back of the mouth. When food is swallowed, the soft palate, located in the posterior part of the roof of the mouth, closes off the nasopharynx and the epiglottis covers the glottis, forcing the bolus to pass down the esophagus. The epiglottis prevents the food from entering the trachea. The bolus is moved down the esophagus from the muscle contractions called peristalsis. At the base of the esophagus, the bolus comes across a constriction; the cardiac sphincter closes and opens before the bolus can enter the stomach. The cardiac sphincter prevents the acidic contents of the stomach from backing up into the esophagus. After the partial chemical digestion, occurring in the mouth, and after the food has become bolus and has moved down the esophagus, the food go through mechanical digestion again in the stomach. The stomach has three layers of muscle that churn the food, causing the release of gastrin. Gastrin is a hormone that travels from the walls of the stomach into the blood stream. Gastrin affects the stomach as it moves through the body, causing the release of gastric juice. Gastric juice contains water, HCl, and pepsinogen. The HCl reacts with the pepsinogen to produce pepsin, an enzyme that digests proteins. The HCl kills bacteria and also provides the pepsin with an optimum pH of .5 to function in. Because the stomach has acidic juices, it contains a thick layer of mucous to protect the walls of the stomach. Under the influence of the acidic environment of the stomach, the bolus turns into a thick, soupy liquid called chyme. The chyme then moves through the pyloric sphincter, which repeatedly opens and closes, allowing chyme to enter the duodenum, the first section of the small intestine, in small squirts only. The most extensive part of digestion occurs in the small intestine; here most food products are further hydrolyzed and absorbed. The duodenum is specialized by the presence of chemoreceptors, chemical sensitive nerve endings that are able to detect the different biochemicals in the food material. The presence of the acid chyme triggers the release of secretin from the duodenum. Secretin is a hormone that moves through the blood (it is endocrine because it moves through the blood) to the pancreas where it causes the release of pancreatic juice. Pancreatic juice moves through pancreatic duct, and consists of sodium bicarbonate, water, and the four enzymes pancreatic amylase, trypsin, nuclease and lipase. The sodium bicarbonate turns the acid chyme basic with a pH of approximately 8.5. The sodium bicarbonate has a great function in that the materials present in the small intestine are able to operate at its optimum pH. The water functions in hydrolysis, the trypsin breaks protein into peptides, the pancreatic amylase, which has similar function as the salivary amylase different location, nuclease breaks down DNA into nucleotides, and the lipase breaks fats into fatty acids and glycerol; these processes using specific enzymes are a form of chemical digestion. The presence of lipids in the acid chyme causes the release of a hormone called CCK, cholecystokinin. The CCK affects the gall bladder and the pancreas, causing the release of bile and pancreatic juice. The bile is made in the liver, and stored in the gall bladder and emulsifies fats to create greater surface area for the lipase to turn lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. It is composed of cholesterol, bile salts and pigments from the breakdown of hemoglobin called biliruben and biliverdin.

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Intestinal juice is secreted by the small intestine. It contains water, pancreatic juice, bile, and a number of enzymes such as maltase peptidases, nuclease, sucrase, and lactase. Maltase breaks down maltose into glucose. The hydrolysis of disaccharides by enzymes such as maltase, completes the digestion of carbohydrates. The enzyme peptidases, breaks any remaining peptide bonds in the proteins to release amino acids. Sucrase breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose, while lactase breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose. The function of the intestinal juice is to complete the process begun by the pancreatic juice. The mechanical pressure of food partly digested in the intestine stimulates the flow of intestinal juice. Similar to the esophagus, the food goes through mechanical digestion of peristalsis in the small intestine as well.

Within the jejunum, also part of the small intestine, parts of the food is digested. The last part of the small intestine is the ilium. It contains fingerlike projections called villi in which absorption takes place. The outer layer of the villi is of columnar epithelium and blood vessels (arteriole and venule) and a small lymphatic vessel called a lacteal. The fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed through the lacteal tube and moved into the lymphatic system, and the glucose and amino acids are absorbed into the circulatory system. The fluids with absorbed materials move through the hepatic portal vein to the liver, where it then flows through the hepatic vein to the heart and other body parts.

Materials that cannot be digested and absorbed by the small intestine move into the large intestine, which consists of caecum, the colon, the rectum, and the anal canal. The indigestible materials pass through the ilium to the large intestine through the ileo-caecal sphincter. The caecum, which is also known as a blind pouch, is the first part of the large intestine and has a small projection called the appendix. The large intestine is made up of the ascending colon, transverse colon, and descending colon. The large intestine mainly absorbs water, salt, and vitamins, and store indigestible materials to be excreted. The large intestine also has a sigmoid colon that leads to the rectum. The rectum stores feces, indigestible food that has been converted by bacteria, and opens at the anus where defecation occurs. The dietary fiber gained from the onions and lettuce, help with the process of defecation. Defecation is the releasing of the feces. It is released through the anal sphincter.

When food is brought into the body and digested, the blood glucose level increases. The pancreas secretes the hormones called insulin and glucagon from cells called islets of Langerhans, to regulate the body¡¯s use of glucose. Insulin is secreted into the blood when blood glucose levels are high (after meals). This causes the liver and muscle to store glucose as glycogen energy reserve, stimulate the liver, fat and muscle cells to take up and metabolize glucose, and aid in the build up of fats and proteins, inhibiting its use of energy source. Glucagons is secreted into the blood in response to low blood sugar levels (between meals), to promote the break down of nutrients and increase blood glucose levels. This is an example of negative feedback occurring, where a change in the body is reversed in such a way to return the body to its original condition, to regain homeostasis. The pancreas is an endocrine gland in that it is hormone producing and moves things through the blood, however, the pancreas is also an exocrine gland in that it produces digestive juices that move through ducts and not the blood.

As one can see, for Larry the Liver Sandwich to be digested, a long series of processes must occur. Larry is mechanically and chemically broken down, absorbed, and the non-digestible food material becomes wastes, which are excreted through the anal sphincter. The human body will use the nutrients absorbed from Larry the Liver Sandwich to supply the body with the necessary nutrients needed to help it function properly in its daily life.

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Ethics opinion

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It has long been determined that an attorney owes to his client undivided devotion, and an attorney is forbidden, after terminating his relationship with a former client, to do anything which will injuriously affect his former client in any manner in which he formerly represented him, or at any time to use against his former client knowledge or information acquired by reason of the previous attorney-client relationship.

In the present situation, an associate lawyer is employed at a relatively large law firm that represents a client in a product liability suit against General Motors. The associate lawyer has been offered a position at a new firm that would double her salary. The only problematic fact that exists is that the new law firm, that has offered the position to the lawyer, represents General Motors in the same lawsuit brought by the lawyer's former firm.

The relevant provisions of The Michigan Rules of Professional Conduct in such a situation are 1.6 Confidentiality of Relationship, 1.7 Conflict of Interest General Rule, 1. Conflict of Interest Former Client and 1.10 Implied Disqualifications General Rule. MRPC 1.6 refers to information a client shares with a lawyer that is protected by the attorney-client relationship. The confidentiality rule is subject to limited exceptions, such as when a lawyer foresees that a client may commit a crime or when a client consents to the release of such information, but only after full disclosure to them. Even after withdrawal from an attorney-client relationship, the lawyer is required to refrain from making disclosures of the client's confidence, except as otherwise provided in MPRC 1.6.

The more relevant provisions to the first issue presented are MRPC 1.7 and 1. which deal with conflict of interests in representing new and former clients. MRPC 1.7 specifically forbids an attorney from representing a client, such as General Motors, if that representation will be directly adverse to another client, in this case a former client, which would trigger the applicability of MRPC 1.. The rule also sets out certain exceptions to the rule where representation would be permissible. One such situation is where both clients consent to the subsequent representation, which would be highly unlikely.

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MRPC 1. (a) states that

This is assuming that the lawyer at the former firm was the actual attorney that represented the client, if not MRPC 1. (b) would be relevant. Under MRPC 1. (b) even though the actual attorney may have not represented the client, conflict of interest rule may still be applicable as being a lawyer of a firm that represented that client, assuming that the lawyer had some familiarity or contact with the case. MRPC 1. (b) states that

There are several concerns that are raised regarding the conflict of interests rules, most important of these concerns is the fact that such a rule may act as an impermissible limitation on an attorney's or firm's right to practice. When it comes to the issue of being a limitation on the actual attorney, such an argument is relatively week as opposed to the firm's same argument. MI Eth. Op. R-4. The other competing interest is based upon the theory that clients would be less reluctant to share highly relevant information with their lawyer on the grounds that there may be a possibility that valuable information may be used against them at a later time. Disqualification is the topic of the second issue and is specifically addressed by MRPC 1.10.

Under MRPC 1.10 (b)

The so called screening process consists of several preemptive procedures to avoid disqualification of the firm. It begins by disqualifying the newly hired lawyer from any participation in the action. The second step involves instructing all other lawyers in the firm not to discuss the matter in the new lawyer's presence, or to receive or show any information to him. The third step deals with securing and segregating files of that matter from other files. The last step deals with the apportionment of fees. MI Eth. Op. RI-84. With screening employed, the next process would be to notify, in writing, the appropriate tribunal of the situation to obtain authorization to continue in the matter.

Based on the forgoing analysis, a lawyer who has changed firms may represent an opponent of a client of the lawyers former firm in connection with a matter handled by the former firm as long as the lawyer did not acquire any confidential or secret information about the client of the former firm or the matter at issue while working for the former firm. If the lawyer did acquire such confidential or secret information, the lawyer is prohibited from defending the new client, but the firm is not precluded if the new lawyer is screened and shows compliance with such a procedure.

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It's Time for an Alternative Solution!

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Executive Summary

Today the manufacturing industry contributes greatly to the amount of pollution distributed throughout the environment. Although standards have been developed to limit the amount of pollutants produced and/or disposed of each year, the issue and its damaging effects still exist. However, new energy sources are being developed to eliminate many of these problems. These sources of energy are produced through the use of solar power, wind power, and hydropower. These methods of energy production are cost effective and operationally efficient, which provides various benefits to the user. The impact of such energy sources has little or no effect on the environment and provide for safer working environments. The fact of the matter is that no other energy source can compete with solar, wind, or water power.

It's Time for an Alternative Solution!

In today's world pollution and all of its effects has become a very big issue. More often than not, the blame for such environmental hazards is placed on the shoulders of the manufacturing industry. However, many of these companies make products that the public uses on a regular basis. Why then isn't the public doing more than just passing the blame off on manufacturers? The fact of the matter is that everyone is at fault, whether directly or indirectly, for the pollution that destroys our world. More importantly, everyone has a responsibility to control and/or eliminate such negative effects on our environment. By no means is this responsibility "easy". It takes time, effort, and money to negate all of the horrible things we have done to the land, air, and water.

In an attempt to control some types of pollution the government has instituted environmental standards that limit the amount of emissions and waste being produced. Although most manufacturers meet these guidelines, each year more new businesses are started and more waste is produced. On the topic of environmental protection we're going nowhere, and fast! It's time for an alternative solution!

At Enviro-Source, Inc. we are dedicated to finding new and effective solutions to minimize and/or eliminate completely the impact manufacturing companies have on the environment. These solutions range from alternative energy sources, alternative methods for material usage and disposal, and alternative operating methods. Here alternative sources of energy will be discussed. These solutions are effective and will be proven to work for any manufacturing type companies, thus allowing them to improve processes that have direct and indirect effects on the environment

Manufacturing's Impact

Regardless of whether or not the government's environmental standards are met each year, manufacturing continues to have a huge impact on the environment. Air, water, and land are polluted, which causes serious damage to the world and its people.

Within manufacturing the greatest contributor to air pollution is the emissions that are put out into the air on a constant basis. These emissions are a combination of the production of certain products and the energy used to produce them. This impacts the environment by causing acid rain and global warming. "Acid rain causes acidification to lakes and streams" and damages trees and plant life, crops, buildings, and soil. (Effects of Air Pollution) Pollutants in the air can also result in illnesses, such as respiratory diseases, to animals and people. Global Warming is also caused by air pollution. As a result the ozone depletes allowing for warmer temperatures and increased precipitation and sea levels. Water and land pollution are also partly caused by manufacturing. The dumping and/or leakage of toxic waste into water and onto land poisons the water and food supply, causing illnesses in people. This form of pollution also erodes the soil and damages or destroys ecosystems, agricultural areas, forest, and wildlife. These are just a few of the damaging effects of the manufacturing industry on the environment.

After realizing what devastating effects we can have on the environment, it becomes evident that something must me done. Many companies want to improve environmental efficiencies, but are concerned with the costs and overall effectiveness of different environmental prevention plans. However, the following alternative options have been developed to be cost effective, efficient, and environmentally sustainable.

Alternative Energy Sources

Today most companies are still using electricity to produce their products. However, the use of electricity contributes greatly to air pollution by giving off greenhouse gases, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and even mercury. (Cleaner and Greener) It also can be very expensive depending upon production and operations. Recently, however, alternative energy sources have been developed which are just as effective as using electricity, but are more cost efficient and have little or no effect on the environment. Three of these sources of energy are solar power, wind power, and hydropower. They of course have advantages and disadvantages, but the benefits far outweigh the disadvantages.

Solar power is the conversion of light into energy. How does it work? Well panels are constructed out of a heavy-duty glass with layers of plastic for maximum reflection and protection. Within the panels are Photovoltaic cells, or PV cells, which is what actually transforms light into energy. "When sunlight strikes a PV cell electrons are dislodged, creating an electrical current." (What are Photovoltaics?) There are a variety of systems to choose from and many can be customized to meet specific needs. Manufacturers that implement a solar power system become virtually self sufficient when it comes to energy. There are two disadvantages to a solar powered system. The first is that the initial set up costs, depending on the type of system needed, might be expensive. This is outweighed by the benefit that over the long run this is the least expensive type of energy system to run. The second disadvantage is that although energy is still produced on cloudy or overcast days, the amount of energy is reduced. (Photovoltaic Cells and Modules) Therefore, this must be taken into account when installing such a system. Despite such disadvantages solar energy is becoming the most effective, cost efficient, and environmentally friendly systems in the world.

Another type of energy source that is becoming popular is wind power. "Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks or a generator can convert this mechanical power into electricity to power homes, businesses, schools, and the like." (US Dept. of Energy) The turbines come in many different sizes and only create some noise pollution, due to the propellers. This energy producing system is very cost effective. The only disadvantage is that the system is limited to producing only as much energy as there is wind. (US Dept. of Energy) However, technology regarding wind power is on the rise and is becoming very cost competitive.

The final type of alternative energy source that is getting a lot of attention is hydropower, or waterpower. This type of energy can be produced in several ways. One of which is to use a wheel that is turned by the force of the water, then that wheel powers a generator, which in turn creates energy and distributes it. Turbines, in place of the wheels, can also be used in dams or in lakes and streams. Although this type of energy produces no pollutants, methods using turbines kill fish and can cause injuries to people. (US Dept. of Energy Hydropower Program) However, research and new technology is being developed to prevent such accidents from happening. It is also very cost effective and is a self-sufficient means of providing energy. The only other disadvantage is that its use is limited to areas where sufficient water resources are available. Despite the disadvantages, using hydropower is still much more efficient than using electricity. Once the turbine technology is developed more, waterpower will no doubt become another environmentally safe means of producing energy.

Conclusion

It is painfully obvious that manufacturing activities can have huge impacts on our environment. The waste and emissions they produce causes air, water, and land pollution. This calls for drastic action. By using alternative energy sources to power plants and facilities the impact on the environment can be minimized and/or eliminated completely. Those sources being solar power, wind power, and hydropower. These methods of energy use also reduce costs associated with production and allow for more efficient operations. In today's world meeting governmental standards is not enough. It's time for an alternative solution! It's time for the manufacturing industry to take the initiative and become environmentally friendly. Only in this way, is it possible to preserve the world around us for years to come.

"Advanced Hydropower Turbine Systems". U.S. Department of Energy Hydropower Program. 10 July 00. http//hydropower.inel.gov/turbine/turbine.htm.

"Cleaner and Greener Program Pollution Calculator, The". Leonardo Academy Inc.

10 July 00. http//www.cleanerandgreener.org

"Effects of Air Pollution". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. July 00.

http//www.epa.gov/air/topics/corneap.htm/

"Quick Facts about Wind Energy". U.S. Department of Energy . 10 July 00.

http//www.eere.energy.gov/wind/web.html

"What are Photovoltaics?" Solar Electric Power Association. July 00.

http//www.solarelectricpower.org/power/what_are_pvs.cfm

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Domestic Violence

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Domestic Violence towards women is a problem in the United States that is usually over looked and almost always not noticed by Society today. Violence is defined by the Riverside Websters Dictionary (p.755) as 1. Physical force employed so as to damage or injure. . As an instance of violent action. If this is the case than why is it that so many women are beaten by loved ones each year and little or nothing is done to correct this violent and hostile situation? In this paper I will attempt to answer this question along will a slue of others which plaque women in these war zones each day.

The battered women is pictured by most people as a small, fragile, haggard person who might once have been pretty. She has several small children, no job skills, and is economically dependent on her husband. It is frequently assumed that she is poor and from a minority group. She is accustomed to living in violence, and her

fearfulness and passivity are emphasized above all. Although some battered women do fit this description, research proves it to be false

stereotype.(Walker p.18) In fact most battered women have highly

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lucrative jobs such as doctors or lawyers, Corporation executives and

nurses. Most are heavy set women whose assets are controlled by there

husbands and cannot defend themselves physically. Battered women are found in all racial, religious and ethical backgrounds as well as age groups and educational levels. Who are battered women? If you are a women, there is a 50 percent chance it could be you!(Walker p.1)

Statistical data on battered women is difficult to find because

most records are buried in medical records, domestic disturbance calls to the police or the records of social service agencies. During my research I found that characteristics in numerous categories for both the batterer and battered were the same. Here is a list of those categories that were the same or in a similar fashion the same for both individuals. Commonly shared characteristics between Battered and Batterer. 1. Has low self-esteem. . Believes all myths about battering relationships. . Is a traditionalist about the home, strongly believes in family unity and his or her roles in the family unit. As with the women all racial, religious, educational levels equally represent the men, cultures socioeconomic groups. Batterers typically deny that they have a problem, although they are aware of it; and they become enraged if their women should reveal the true situation. (Walker p.6)

Researchers Eisenberg and Micklow found 0 percent of the

batterers in their study had been in the military. Twenty five percent

received dishonorable discharges. (Walker p.7) These are some alarming facts and characteristics about both the battered and the batterer. I was unable to collect any data on the cause for this percentage of violence by men of the military. Although it being a school of violence might have some weight on the effects of this violence on women. Some of the reasoning behind these acts of physical and mental neglect may be societies acceptance of such violence. We as a society are always calling for more violence on television in the theater and on other individuals. We pay for these sorts of entertainment, ask the government to apply force on other nations and as the saying goes sex and violence sell. It is glorified in all forms of the media.

Why do battered women stay with there significant others? The

answer has many different angles; some stay for financial reasons others for the traditional reasons. The fact is that they stay, but when is enough? After you live so many years, and you wake up one day, and your body has just about had it, you say, My God, I just cant take another punch. Thats what happened to me. I just reached a point where I said, No more. Nothing is worth it. I decided I would rather struggle and see if I couldnt make it, so I just up and left, and thats been it. (Langley and Levyp.111) This was the victim of spouse abuse for seventeen years. In another case a women from Maryland described her experience. Being beaten up is the most degrading, humiliating, crushing kind of thing that could happen to a person. (Langley and Levy p.116) in most cases the women feel that they are the ones to blame for there battering and also apologize for being beaten. A womens decision to stay or go to seek help or suffer in silence is often determined by the frequency of her beatings. (Langley and Levy p.1)

When women do come to the end of the line and have finally worked up enough courage to do it, to leave the one she loves so dear where does she go? Well I would like to tell you that she calls for help via the police or local athorities and receives the compassion and understanding that she so deserves and needs in this time of uncertainty and doubt. But, all too often she is meet with hostility and cynicism. Usually, the police, attorneys, prosecutors, public defenders, and even judges feel they should not get involved in so called family problems. (Langley and Levy p.15)

One Detroit police officer is even quoted as saying, there are no rewards for refereeing a family fight. (Langley and Levy p.15) One of the problems is the offense can be both criminal and civil matters. There are in fact only three states that have laws that deal directly with spouse abuse, California, Hawaii, and Texas which make it an automatic felony for a husband to beat his wife. The system however does not work in the favor of the battered but rather in the favor of the batterer. Assault is a crime in every state. Since wife beating is a form of assault, then wife beating is a crime in every state. In practice, however, wife beating is not treated as a crime but as a civil matter. Prosecutors deliberately look the other way even when a man admits to wife beating. (Langley and Levy p.154)

When the judicial system fails to help the abused, the abused must turn elsewhere. Places such as crisis centers, church, or shelters. But in many places there are no such places or organizations to help the abused, then the abused must depend on community help as well as family and friends to help. Mostly with support groups and just by giving the abused the compassion and support once sot by the abused in the judicial system.

One example of this disappointment in the system was found in the Detroit Free Press, in an article headlined Emergency Number Still Has Kinks, reported near-breathless women, beaten by her husband, dialed 11 to ask for police assistance. Does he have a weapon? the operator asked. She answered he did not. Then I am sorry. We wont be able to help you, the operator said to the dismayed women. (Langley and Levy p.160) This lack of confidence in the judicial system in return sends women a message of desperation, fear and frustration. Many women in turn take the law into there own hands, in a study done by the U.S Department of Justice between 187 and 11. Approximately one in four attacks involved the use of a gun or knife, according to the study. Young, black and Hispanic women were especially vulnerable, as were poor single women with low education levels who lived in inner cities. The findings were drawn from more than 400,000 interviews. The Acting Bureau Director Lawrence A. Greenfeld stated that the number of women attacked by spouses, former spouses, boyfriends, parents or children is more than 10 times higher than the number of males attacked by such people. It is clear to me that all of us living in this great nation need to join hands in the fight against Domestic Violence in the home, not just against women but children and men as well. But for the purpose of this paper I would like to focus mainly on the women of the American household. We as a society should take action and compose social as well as political laws to rectify this situation. There are no set standards, in fact police officers are told to not arrest in cases of domestic violence calls. The reasoning is once again the civil matter of domestic violence being a family problem.

In concluding this simply alarming and terrifyingly eye opening

subject matter I would like to suggest five areas in which we as a society and human beings could help in altering the violence. Not just on women but on women, children and minorities as well. 1. The expression of violence is most commonly seen in the context of relationships . Current policies to address personal violence are outdated and superficial. . Violence does not effect everyone equally-it is ingrained in cultural expressions of power and inequality. 4. Prevention of violence entails on the positive in the context of the relationships, not just focusing on individual weaknesses or deviance. 5. Youth are important resources and are part of the solution. I strongly believe in these five seemingly simply and yet necessary areas. Not as a way of solving the domestic problems of society today but as a way of depleting the number of cases of domestic violence each year until a suitable set of guidelines or standards can be developed.

Works Cited U.S Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Bureau of

Justice Statistics Box 6000 Rockville, Maryland 0850

David A. Wolfe

Christine Wekerle

Katreena Scott

Alternatives to Violence

Empowering Youth to Develop Healthy Relationships

Sage Publications

455 Teller Road

Thousand Oaks, California 10

Evan Stark, Ph.D., M.S.W.

Anne Flitcraft, M.D.

Women At Risk

Domestic Violence and Womens Health

Sage Publications

455 Teller Road

Thousand Oaks, California 10

Roger Langley

Richard C. Levy

Wife Beating The Silent Crisis

A Sunrise Book

E.P. Dutton

01 Park Avenue South

New York, N.Y. 1000

Lenore E. Walker

The Battered Women

Harper & Row, Publishers

New York, Hagerstown, San Francisco, London

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Ben franklin

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Benjamin Franklin

Benjamin Franklin was a remarkably talented man. He started his career as a simple printer apprentice, but went far beyond the printers shop. He developed products that were far beyond the time. The Franklin stove for example, for cold winter nights and bifocal lenses for reading. Franklin tracked storm paths to help understand the wicked weather endured by the colonies. His study of electricity made him most famous for he was known around the world as the inventor of the lightning rod. Not only was Ben Franklin helpful in developing ideas for better living, he was also a strong force in developing the new nation of America. Benjamin Franklins political views showed him to be a man who loved freedom and self-government. His views towards Britain gradually changed from favor to disfavor until he finally became a revolutionist at the age of 70. But more than just his political views help in the formation of the United States. His common sense, his whit, and his ability to negotiate behind the scenes, all lent a hand in the formation of the new country across the sea. Franklins good humor and gift for compromise often helped prevent bitter disputes which could have stalled the formation of the new government.

Interestingly, Ben Franklin, who was a chief participant in the battle for independence, had a lot to lose by it. He had a residence in London and was influential in England. However, his love of liberty and his desire to promote the well being of Pennsylvania pushed him toward independence for the colonies. Franklin had to wrestle with his conscience over his own private affairs. He was also a highly respected man in England. At first Franklin wanted the colonies to be and independent free nation under the caring and protecting umbrella of the British Empire. Franklin did not contemplate separation from

Britain for he regarded Britain as having the freest, best government in the world. Franklin proposed self-government for the American colonies. Historically, Ben Franklin was in favor of self-government.

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In fact, nearly forty years of service as a public official began when Franklin was elected for the Pennsylvania Assembly. At first, he wanted to get support for various civic causes but soon partisan politics held his undivided attention.

As the legislature strategist and writer for the weakly formed Quaker party, he defended the powers of the elected representatives of the people. Benjamin Franklins political views with regard to various

British taxation upon the colonists shows him leaning away from Britain. The Townsend Acts, Stamp Act, and other taxes and duties on colonial goods were opposed by Franklin. He wrote in connection with the American Stamp Acts, "The Sovereignty of the British Legislature out of Britain, I do not understand." Franklin felt that the colonies were capable of writing their own legislation. The colonies had their own parliaments and Franklin was confidant that these assemblies could properly legislate for the colony. In one of Franklins letters he writes that possibly an extreme case would be best. The crisis brought about by the Stamp Act propelled Franklin into a new role as chief defender of American rights in Britain. At first, Franklin urged to colonists to be obedient to the act until it could be repealed. However, when Franklin heard of the violent protest against it in America, he became more opposed to it.

Not only did Benjamin Franklin love liberty, he also had great skill as a diplomat. In this role, Franklin and his two grandsons sailed from France in 1776. He achieved an amazing personal triumph and gained critical French aid for the Revolutionary War. Literary and scientific writers in Paris praised Franklin as a modern thinker. As the war raged on and France made a positive impact favoring the colonist, it became more and more impossible for Britain to give the war its full attention. Britain needed a way out and Franklin played a key role. Franklin was appointed in 1781 a commissioner to negotiate the peace with Britain. Franklin was a very good negotiator. Franklin had common sense, whit, and skills that all helped bring favorable positions to the colonies against Britain.

Finally, Benjamin Franklin portrays a man torn between his love of Britain and a desire for liberty for the people of the new world. His greatest hope was for Britain to be the great, caring mother country that protected a young free nation across the sea. He was each country benefiting the other. Of course, this could not happen so he made sure that the best for America would be insured through his efforts to bring France to the aid of the Colonies and to finally bring about a livable peace between Britain and America.

Please note that this sample paper on ben franklin is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on ben franklin, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on ben franklin will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Philosophy

If you order your essay from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on philosophy. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality philosophy paper right on time.

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The philosophies of Aristotle and Descartes have many distinguished differences. Aristotle, born in 84BC, brought out the empiricist side of philosophy. Descartes, born in 156BC, did not contribute to the empiricist side of philosophy, but instead focused on and believed more in a rationalistic style of philosophy. Though some thoughts remained similar between the two men, the differences between the two philosophies are clear.

To understand the thoughts of Aristotle and Descartes one must first understand the differences between empiricism and rationalism. An empiricist is one who believes that sense perception is the most important part of knowledge. Sense perception is where it all starts. In order to truly grasp something, one must use his/her sense perceptions to really understand it. For example, one doesn't really know what a pumpkin looks like until he sees the pumpkin; only then can he for a mental picture in his head of what a pumpkin is. In comparison to the empiricist, a rationalistic philosopher really isn't viewed as much of a philosopher, but is looked at as more of a scientist. A rationalistic philosopher will calculate everything mathematically before he ever says something exists. The rationalist will always use math in order to uncover his answer. The only way a rationalist can prove something is by using a mathematical formula to answer the question being asked. Until then, one must come to the conclusion that nothing in his surroundings is real.

As an empiricist, Aristotle formulated philosophies based on his observations. For example, Aristotle would observe animals and then proceed to write about them after observing. Whatever Aristotle studied he would use his sense perceptions to learn about it. This was done in order to learn and understand reality. It's basically a "you need to see it to believe it" philosophy.

The first step into Aristotle's world of empiricism is using induction. Induction is the most important aspect of sense perception, which was viewed as the most important aspect of knowledge according to Aristotle. When using induction one forms a clear, general idea through repeated observations. The general idea then applies to more then one entity. This is a tactic that scientist would use(you said above that the rationalistic thinker was more like a scientist. Don't contradict). Take, for example, a Zebra. Looking at a zebra one can say all zebras are the same. If one sees any zebra he/she will know it is a zebra through seeing it repeatedly and gaining an understanding that all zebras look like that.

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After understanding the first step of empiricism, then one can move on to the next step called deduction. In order to get to deduction, one must grasp the idea of induction first(if you are not going to explain induction, then get rid of this sentence). Deduction after one has the general idea, saying the truth about a specific entity. (??????? THIS SENTENE MAKES NO SENSE). Saying that all zebras have stripes is an example of deduction. The observer has taken a specific entity, the stripes, and stated the truth that all zebras have those stripes. Induction and deduction are the to main important parts of understanding empiricism.

Once one understands what something is, it is necessary to explain the causes of it existing as such. The four causes; material, formal, efficient, and final, become the standard for knowing the world. The first of the four causes is material, or what the matter made from. The second is formal, which is like the blueprint, or the plan for the form. Thirdly is efficient (is it efficiency?). Efficient is the thing that happens first that made the thing we are trying to explain exist(????? REWORD WITHOUG USING "THING"). And last is final, which is the "telos" or the end result, or purpose of something. Not everything gets to reach its "telos" in Aristotle's theory.

Quite different from the philosophy of Aristotle, Rene Descartes says that there are two parts of reality. One part is matter, or material things, and the other is spirit (mind), which encompases non-material things. Being a mathematician, Descartes incorporated two tools in to his philosophy, intuition and deduction. These two tools help show how something is true. Intuition is when one knows something is true because it is self-evident. For example, seven is equal to seven, or the number seven plus one is greater than seven. These are things one doesn't really need to do anything with because they are self-evident(Awk; rephrase). The second part of Descartes philosophy is deduction, which played a role in Aristotle's philosophy as well. Deduction has two meanings; the first one is after understanding the general idea of something saying the truth about a specific entity. The second is knowing the truth about a piece of something because you know the truth about the whole of it. One can only assume that a general knowledge about the whole idea of something, would enable one to break it apart and know individual pieces that make up the whole.

Descartes goal is to prove everything before putting it into his philosophy, however, which is quite the opposite of Aristotle. Aristotle made assumptions prior to proving, whereas Descartes' aim is to prove mathematically that reality is like perceptions. Every sentence has to be proven before being put into the philosophy. Descartes is trying to prove that everything in the external world outside ones perceptions is real, this being one of his biggest doubts(????). Descartes starts doubting the existence of everything including himself. The method used is called methodological skepticism. Methodological skepticism doubts everything till one is unable to find something that cannot be doubted. Descartes doubts the information that his senses are transmitting to him. Why does he doubt everything? To see if there is something that cannot be doubted. (The end of this paragraph gets VERY disorganized because you jump around between ideas. Needs some work)

Descartes starts by saying "Cogito, ergo sum," which translates into "I think therefore I am." This is another way of saying every time one doubts they exist, they prove that they do exist, which is termed as solipsism. Solipsism proves that only one's mind exists and proves that God exists. How does it prove that God exists? God is good and God wouldn't lie. Following this, Descartes moves on to establish that God exists by creating three proofs using induction. The first rationalistic proof is that one has a clear and distinct idea of God. God is the one thing(WC being, idea) with all the positive qualities to an infinite degree God is omnipotent, omniscient, eternal, immutable, and perfectly good. The second part in Descartes first rationalistic proof is that it's impossible for a finite mind to create the idea of an infinite thing. A mind with a limit is too incapable of creating an infinite something. The third part of the proof is that the idea of God does not come through sense perception. In no way does sense perception relate to God. (You Need a better transition between these ideas) There are three kinds of ideas. First is the idea of adventitious knowing through sense. Secondly is the idea of factitious, which are made up ideas. Lastly are innate ideas, which are ideas that we are born with. The fourth part of the first proof says that the idea of God is innate. This means that we are all born with the idea of God. God created the idea of God. This is the first proof Descartes came up with in order to prove that God exists. The second rationalistic proof is if one has the idea of God in their mind God is the thing with all the positive qualities to an infinite degree(????). In other words, when one thinks about God one thinks of all the infinite goodness dealing with God and nothing bad in relation to him. Everyone who has the idea of God is considered valuable because they have the idea. The ultimate cause of a mind that can think of a perfect thing must be a perfect thing. Both proofs one and two of Descartes philosophy say that God exists because God is the only one who could have caused something to happen with the world. God is the cause of the mind and also the creator of the relationship of cause and effect, meaning every time something happens there is a reaction because of that. Descartes believes in these because God is infinitely good. When dealing with causality and Descartes proofs there are three self-evident propositions about causes. There must be as much reality in the cause as there is in the effect. In other words, if the cause is real then the effect is real. The second self-evident proposition is that something cannot proceed from nothing. Third is more perfect cannot proceed from what is less perfect. So perfection cannot be lowered. The third proof is the ontological proof. The ontological proof is the idea of the most perfect thing having the qualities of omnipotence, omniscience, eternalness, immutability, and perfect goodness to the infinite degree. These are the three proofs that show how God is infinitely good. If everything is a deception, then everything is a hoax. The world exists because God would deceive us. This is the conclusion Descartes came up with.

These are the two different ways that two philosophers, Aristotle and Descartes look at reality. The ideas created by the two philosophers have a few similarities, yet generally oppose each other. Aristotle assumed that there was an external world prior to ever finding out and Descartes disregarded the idea until he could prove it rationally. Therefore, there are different ways that the two philosophers can prove the external world; Aristotle based a great deal of his theory of induction on sense perception and Descartes based his theory on methodological skepticism to obtain answers.

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A Separate Peace

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The phrase "a separate peace" is used in the book when Gene is recalling the winter carnival that Phineas initiated. "…Phineas recaptured that magic gift for existing primarily in space, one foot conceding briefly to gravity its rights before spinning him off again into the air. It was his wildest demonstration of himself, of himself in the kid of world he loved; it was his choreography of peace." (Page18). Gene describes Phineas in a sense such that he has always been carefree and lived without worries of what is happening in the world around him. "His choreography of peace" is how Gene describes Phineas' peace. He chooses the word choreography because there are hundreds of distinctly different choreographies knows, and a new form of choreography can be invented any day, by any body. Phineas has created his own "choreography", or a way of keeping his own peace, that is different from the other boys at Devon.

Phineas' way of keeping peace is by denying that there is an actual war taking place. He tells Gene, "…That kept the people who were young in the thirties in their places. But they couldn't use that excuse forever, so for us in the forties they've cooked up this war fake…The fat old men who don't want us crowding them out of their jobs. They've made it all up. There isn't any real food shortage, for instance. The men have all the best steaks delivered to their clubs now. You've noticed how they've been getting fatter lately, haven't you?" (Page 107). Later in the story, Leper makes Phineas as well as the others boys realize that the war is an actual thing and it has real consequences that affect them directly. Gene says, "All of them [the other boys], all except Phineas constructed at infinite cost to themselves these Maginot Lines against this enemy they thought they saw across the frontier, this enemy who never attacked that way- if he ever attacked at all; if he was indeed the enemy." (Page 16). Although Gene, in his description, excludes Phineas from it, it really does apply to Phineas. Phineas' Maginot Line was his denial of the war. As long as he did not accept it, he wouldn't have to deal with it. But when Leper went crazy, his Maginot Line was broken, because it had come to a point where Phineas, as well as the other boys, had to deal with the effects of the war.

Then more into the story, it is discovered that Phineas does want a part in the war, for he has been sending letters requesting any kind of part in the war, but he is constantly rejected due to his leg. Before these pieces of information are found, Phineas' denial of the war is used to keep him from facing the facts that he will not be able to have a part in the war and that it really does have negative features with it. This is part of his "separate peace" because by pretending that the war doesn't exist, he is keeping himself from facing the fact that he will never be a part of it.

Gene goes on to describe the day in which they participated in the winder carnival as, "It wasn't the cider which made me surpass myself, it was this liberation we had torn from the gray encroachments of 14, the escape we had concocted, this afternoon of momentary, illusory, special and separate peace." (Page 18). Phineas creates the Winter Carnival simply as something for the boys to do, but it also serves as a distraction from the war and the boys' responsibilities. Phineas' carnival has captured the other boys participating in it into his own separate peace. For the time that they take part of it, they don't have to think about anything having to do with the war or anything that they don't want to think about because they are playing the games and taking part in the carnival. In that sense, the entire group of boys is living in there own separate peace, thanks to Phineas, away from the reality of the world.

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"Phineas alone has escaped this. He possessed an extra vigor, a heightened confidence in himself, a serene capacity for affection which saved him. Nothing as he was growing up at home, nothing a Devon, nothing even about the war had broken his harmonious and natural unity. So at last I had." (Page 16). In that narration, Gene acknowledges that Phineas lived his life unlike the other boys. He knows that that is just the way that Phineas was, that it was how he lived his life. By saying that nothing at home or at Devon was able to change Phineas, then Gene knows that is really how Phineas' personality is and that he's always going to be like that. Gene says that, "at last I had," meaning that he changed Phineas. He may be referring to the simple fact that he ruined Phineas' leg, and therefore changed Phineas' ways. The statement overall refers to Gene's rupturing of Phineas' separate peace in the way he lived his life.

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Princess diana

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Princess Diana

Diana Francis Spencer was born July 1, 161 at Park House near Sandringham, Norfolk. Diana is the second youngest of four children born to Viscount and Viscountess Althorp. Her sisters Sarah and Jane were older then her. Her brother Charles was younger then her. Diana lived with her father and moved to the Spencer family house in Northhamptonshire in England midland in 175.

Diana went to prepatory school in Diss, Northolk at Riddleswort Hall. In 174she was a board student at west heath near Sevenaks, Kent. Diana was an accomplished pianist. She received the award for giving the most help to the school and her schoolmates. This award shows how giving she was at a young age. She then attended finishing school in 177 she was attending the Institute Alpin Videmanette in Rougemount, Switzerland.

Diana then moved to Coleherns court in London. She worked as a kindergarten teacher at young English school in Pimlico. Then three year later it was announced officially that she would would merry the Prince of Wales. Their families had been friends for years. Prince Charles and Lady Diana married in St. Paul's Cathedral on July , 181. Over 1,000 million people worldwide watched the ceremony. Hundred of Thousands lined the route from the Cathedral to the palace. Archbishop Dr. Runcie of Canterburg and the deans of St. Paul's Cathedral solemnized the marriage.

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Princess Diana was the first English woman to be married to the heir to the thrown since 1680. Diana wore a silk taffeta dress with a twenty-five foot train and her veil was held in place by the Spencer family diamond tiara. Her bridal bouquet was made of gardenia, lilies of the valley, golden roses, white freesia, white orchids and stephanotis. She had five bridesmaids.

Princess Diana and Prince Charles spent part of their honeymoon at the family home at Broadlando, Hampshire. They then flew to Gibralter and join the Royal Yacht. The then embarked on a twelve-day cruse through the Mediterranean to Egypt.

The Prince and Princess lived at Highgrove House near Tetbury. Gloucesteshire primarily. They about shared an apartment at Kensington Palace. The Princess and Prince had two children, William and June 1, 18, and Henry on September 15, 184. Diana had seventeen godchildren.

In December 1 it was officially announced that Diana and Charles would separate. The divorce was final on August 8, 16. Princess Diana then visited Northwick Park Hospital, London.

The year before her death she campaign for a ban on the manufacturing and use of landmine. She visited Angolia in 17 was part of her campaign. Princess Diana remained a patron of Century point English national Ballet, Leprosy Mission, National Aids Trust, and the hospital.

Please note that this sample paper on princess diana is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on princess diana, we are here to assist you. Your essay on princess diana will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Communicative language teaching

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Communicative Language Teaching approach

The Definition Of CLT

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) originated from the changes in the British Situational Language Teaching approach dating from the late 160s (Richards & Rodgers, 001). Stemming from the socio-cognitive perspective of the socio-linguistic theory, with an emphasis on meaning and communication, and a goal to develop learners' "communicative competence", Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach evolves as a prominent language teaching method and gradually replaced the previous grammar-translation method and audio-lingual method (Warschauer & Kern, 000). Since the concept of "communicative competence" was first introduced by Hymes in the mid-160s, many researchers have helped develop theories and practices of Communicative Language Teaching approach (Brown, 187; Canale, 18; Hymes, 171; Littlewood, 181; Nattinger, 184; Nunan, 187 &18; Richards & Rodgers, 186; Widdowson, 10). Hymes coined this term in contrast to Chomsky's "Linguistic Competence". As Stern (1) explicated, "Competence represents proficiency at its most abstract and psychologically deepest level" (p.7). Chomsky indicated that underlying the concrete language performance, there is an abstract rule system or knowledge and this underlying knowledge of the grammar of the language by the native speaker is his "linguistic competence". In contrast, Hymes argue that in addition to linguistic competence, the native speaker has another rule system. In Hymes' view, language was considered as a social and cognitive phenomenon; syntax and language forms were understood not as autonomous, acontextual structures, but rather as meaning resources used in particular conventional ways and develop through social interaction and assimilation of others' speech (Warschauer & Kern, 000). Therefore, speakers of a language have to have more than grammatical competence in order to be able to communicate effectively in a language; they also need to know how language is used by members of a speech community to accomplish their purposes (Hymes, 168). Based on this theory, Canale and Swain (180) later extend the "Communicative competence" into four dimensions. In Canale and Swain, "'Communicative competence' was understood as the underlying systems of knowledge and skill required for communication. Knowledge refers here to what one knows (consciously or unconsciously) about the language and about other aspects of communicative language use; skill refers to how well one can perform this knowledge in actual communication (Canale, 18, p.5)". From this perspective, what language teachers need to teach is no longer just linguistic competence but also socio-linguistic competence ("which utterances are produced and understood appropriately in different socio-linguistic contexts"), discourse competence ("mastery of how to combine grammatical forms and meanings to achieve a unified spoken or written text in different genres"), and strategic competence ("mastery of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that may be called into action for compensating or enhancing communication") (Canale, 18, pp.7-11).

Distinguishing Features Of CLT

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Richards and Rodgers (001) have reviewed a number of people's works on CLT and described several distinguishing features of it. As "communicative competence" is the desired goal, in CLT, meaning is paramount (Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 18, cited by Richards and Rodgers, 001). In socio-cognitive perspectives, language is viewed as a vehicle of conveying meaning, and knowledge is transmitted through communication involving two parts, for example, speakers and listeners, and writers and readers, but is constructed through negotiation. As a consequence, "communication is not only a matter of following conventions but also of negotiating through and about the conventions themselves. It is a convention-creating as well as convention-following activity (Breen & Candlin, 001, p.10)". Therefore, there are three elements involved in the underlying learning theory communication principle, task-based principle, and meaningfulness principle (Richards & Rodgers, 001, p.161). Based on this perception, when applied to language learning, "functional activities" and "social interaction activities" (Littlewood, 181) are consequently selected according to how well they engage the learner in meaning and authentic language use; learning is interpersonal to learn to communicate; attempt to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning; dialogues, if used, centre around communicative functions and not normally memorized; and contextualization is basic premise; drilling may occur, but peripherally; any device that helps to communicate and understand is acceptable (Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 18, cited by Richards & Rodgers, 001, p.156). To some extent, that is to say, students do not simply learn the linguistic structures and grammar rules. Rather, they should be actively making meaning through activities such as collaborative problem solving, writing for a purpose, discussion of topics of genuine interest, and reading, viewing and responding to authentic materials (Murphy, 000).

Since knowledge and learning are viewed as socially constructed through negotiation according to socio-cognitive perspectives (Breen & Candlin, 001), another dimension of CLT is learner-centred and experience-based. "With interactive communicative language use as the call of the day, communicative processes became as important as linguistic product, and instruction became more learner-centered and less structurally driven" (Kern & Warschauer, 000, p.5). In another word, in CLT context, learners are seen as active participants in the construction of knowledge, rather than passive recipients of information provided by the teacher or the textbook. In contrast, language teachers are no longer viewed as the authority of the knowledge, playing a dominant role. Rather, they share different roles such as communication facilitater, independent participant, needs analyst, counselor, and group process manager (Richards & Rodgers, 001, p.167) to create more fascinating experiences for the learners.

Besides the above features, Richards and Rodgers (001) describe other significant characteristics of this approach including its efforts to make tasks and language relevant to a target group of learners through an analysis of genuine, realistic situations, its emphasis on the use of authentic, from-life materials, and its attempt to create a secure, nonthreatening atmosphere. All these attempts also follow the major principles of communicative view of language and language learning helping learners learn a language through authentic and meaningful communication, which involves a process of creative construction, to achieve fluency. In this vein, in terms of classroom activity, it includes group work, task-work, information-gap activities, and projects.

The Weaknesses Of CLT

Yet, inevitably, despite these outstanding characteristics, CLT also have weaknesses. Schmitt (000) argued that CLT needs supportive vocabulary for functional language use but it gives little guidance about how to handle vocabulary. However, it has been now realized that mere exposure to language and practice with functional communication will not ensure the proficiency in language learning, so current best practice includes "both a principled selection of vocabulary, often according to frequency lists, and an instruction methodology that encourages meaningful engagement with words over a number of recyclings" (p.14). Stern (1) also pointed out that CLT approach puts an excessive emphasis on the single concept "communication" so that "in order to account for all varieties and aspects of language teaching we either stretch the concept of communication so much that it loses any distinctive meaning, or we accept its limitations and then find ourselves in the predicament of the "method" solution" (p. 14). Some people criticized that as CLT focus on learner-centered approach, while in some accounts of CLT, learners bring preconception of what teaching and learning should be like, which when unrealized can lead to learner confusion and resentment (Henner-Stanchina & Riley, 178, cited by Richards & Rodgers, 001).

In addition, some people contended that CLT has not given an adequate account of EFL teaching despite its initial growth in foreign language teaching in Europe (Li, 001). Stern (1) argued that one of the most difficult problems is making classroom learning communicative is the absence of native speakers. Apparently, CLT are more successful in English as a Second Language (ESL) context because students usually have a very supportive learning environment outside school. They have more chances to be exposed to the authentic contact with native speakers and the target language, which reinforces what they learn in class. Besides, they have the motivation to work on oral English because they need it in their lives. In contrast, in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context, due to some physical limitations, such as the purpose of learning English, learning environments, teachers' English proficiency, and the availability of authentic English materials, CLT meets much more difficulties during its application.

confronted by language teachers but it has a great potential that gain the apparent popularity in language teaching and learning domain. It also needs to realize that there In summary, CLT cannot be seen as a panacea for the problems that have been isn't a fix framework of CLT. As learners and the learning context are dynamic, when CLT is applied to a certain context, the adaptation and innovation of it is necessary.

Please note that this sample paper on communicative language teaching is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on communicative language teaching, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on communicative language teaching will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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