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Over the last 0 years, we have witnessed what can only be described as a biological revolution. Advancements in techno science, which began with the understanding of the structure of DNA and the mastery of genetic engineering, today enable us to change living things plant, animal and human.
However the origin of biotech started many, many years ago. This was when man first domesticated animals. In the mid-1800s, Austrian monk Gregor Mendel revolutionized genetic science by employing precise pollination methods and statistical analysis. Mendels pioneering methods allowed scientists later to determine how specific traits could be inherited into subsequent generations and to coax plants to swap traits they wouldnt readily exchange in nature. They used a living thing to help themselves. That's what biotechnology is, right? Using living organisms to help better the ways humans live.
For example, over the past 5 years physicists have developed revolutionary imaging technologies that have allowed us to see deeper and deeper into the materials and processes of life itself. Doctors are now using non-invasive means of looking into the human body to diagnose a wide variety of diseases including cancer, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, stroke, heart failure, and vascular disease. CAT (Computer-Assisted Tomography) scans combine X-rays with computer technology to create cross-sectional images of the patient's body, which are then assembled into a three-dimensional picture that displays organs, bones, and tissues in great detail. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scanners use magnets and radio waves instead of X-rays to generate images that provide an even better view of soft tissues, such as the brain or spinal cord. Ultrasound images, produced by very-high-frequency sound waves, can help doctors visualize a developing fetus, detect tumors and organ abnormalities, and identify women at risk of developing osteoporosis. Imaging technologies have also greatly helped in early detection of breast cancer, which claims the lives of nearly 4,000 American women each year. The deeper and smaller we see, the more we understand how life processes work on their most fundamental level.
During the 140s, Norman Borlaug, a plant breeder then working in Mexico, began what eventually became known as the Green Revolution in the 160s. Norman did this by using traditional plant breeding to produce new varieties of wheat. The success of the product was increased by manipulating the plants genes through breeding, and at the same time, manipulating the environment, through the addition of petrochemical inputs (such as fertilizers and pesticides) and homogenization (mechanical preparation of soil).
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Insect-resistant apples, long-lasting raspberries, and potatoes that absorb less fat are among the more than 50 plant products under study now that are likely to reside soon on grocers shelves. Though genetic engineering promises better and more plentiful products, genetically engineered foods may encounter a few obstacles to widespread public acceptance. Some consumers, along with a few advocacy groups, have voiced concern about the safety and environmental impact of these new food products. Some urge an outright ban on any genetically engineered foods. Others support mandatory labeling that discloses the use of genetic engineering. Still others advocate more stringent testing of these products before marketing.
From the standpoint of the Food and Drug Administration, the important thing for consumers to know about these new foods is that they will be every bit as safe as the foods now on store shelves. All foods, whether traditionally bred or genetically engineered, must meet the provisions of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.
The first genetically engineered whole product went on the market in May 14 when FDA determined that a new tomato that can be shipped vine-ripened without rotting rapidly is as safe as other commercial tomatoes. The Flavr Savr is the first ready-to-eat food product available to the U.S. public that used recombinant DNA processes. Its maker, Calgene, Inc., created the Flavr Savr on the premise that many consumers are not satisfied with most store-bought tomatoes, especially in the off-season. Surveys show that though 85 percent of U.S. households buy fresh tomatoes, some 80 percent are displeased with the quality of grocery store tomatoes.
If picked when ripe, tomatoes rot quickly. Though Calgene vine-ripens its tomatoes, the company solved the rotting problem by inserting a reversed copy--an antisense gene of the gene that encodes the enzyme that results in tomato spoilage. This suppresses the enzyme that results in rotting, allowing the tomato to stay ripe, but not rot, up to 10 days--plenty of time for shipping and sale. Refrigeration is not necessary.
Though FDA policy didnt require premarket approval of the Flavr Savr tomato, Calgene sought FDAs review anyway. The company also asked FDA to approve as a new food additive the protein that produces kanamycin resistance. This marker protein allows breeders to identify early in the gene-transfer process which plant cells have successfully incorporated the new trait. Inserting the marker confers resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin. This is a valuable tool when trying to figure out which cells have the new gene and which do not. But it also adds very small amounts of a new protein to diets of millions of Americans and raises concerns about issues such as antibiotic resistance.
A difference with recombinant DNA however, which can be a benefit but which concerns some, is the power of genetic engineering--the ability to transfer genes from a wide variety of species. Because the chemical makeup of DNA is similar in all living things, desirable genes from any organism can be inserted into a plant species. This provides the developer with a much larger selection of valuable traits. For example, one developer experimented with using a gene isolated from a fish, the winter flounder, to impart freeze resistance into a variety of tomato. Such research prompted concerns among some consumers, especially vegetarians and members of certain religious groups. They wondered if the process of inserting an animal gene into a plant somehow could create a vegetable that is part animal and should be labeled.
Whether genetically engineered foods succeed or fail ultimately depends on public acceptance. Early reports on the Flavr Savr tomato, the first recombinant DNA-derived whole food product to reach grocery shelves, were favorable. Calgene said sales in the products first two markets--California and Illinois--were a total success. Calgene chairman Roger Salquist said consumers responded with purchases and praise.
This seems to be a reoccurring problem for the world of genetic engendering. When living things are changed from what they would naturally be, people get upset. There has been quite a commotion lately about cloning, and that's where we'll head next in our exploration of the genetic engineering world.
In October of 10, the National Institutes of Health officially began the Human Genome Project, a massive international collaborative effort to locate the 50,000 to 100,000 genes and sequence the estimated billion nucleotides making up the entire human genome. By determining the complete genetic sequence, scientists hope to begin correlating human traits with certain genes. With this information, medical researchers have begun to determine the intricacies of human gene function, including the source of genetic disorders and diseases that have plagued medical researchers for years.
In July 15, Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell of the Roslin Institute in Scotland successfully cloned two sheep, named Megan and Morag, from differentiated embryo cells. The idea to clone sheep was arrived at by Ian Wilmut as an answer to a gene insertion project he was researching. At the time, time inserting genes into embryo cells was a difficult and tedious process. Few embryos survived the insertion of a gene, even fewer incorporated the gene into their genetic code, and even fewer organisms developed properly and used the gene in all of their cells.
II. THREE WAYS TO MAKE AN EMBRYO
In sexual reproduction a child gets half its genes from its mother (in her egg) and half from its father (in his sperm)
Cloning is an asexual form of reproduction. All the childs genes would come from a body cell of a single individual
Who is the clonal childs genetic mother or father? As we understand those terms, a clonal child wouldnt have a genetic mother or father, it would have a single nuclear donor. If a man cloned himself, would the child be that mans son or his twin brother? It would be neither, it would be a new category of biological relationship his clone.
Mathematics and computer science have greatly contributed to biomedicine through information technology. Much of today's imaging technology relies on microprocessors and software. Computers are also making it
easier for researchers to collect, analyze, and share data in research and in telemedicine, and to model biological systems to project likely outcomes more accurately. It would be impossible for scientists to sequence the entire human genome without the information processing power of supercomputers. And information technologies have provided essential tools to collect and analyze data for epidemiological research that helps us understand the
distribution of disease and to develop clinical and public health interventions.
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