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The seventeenth century saw several changes in painting styles in Holland. One of the most significant was the emergence of the Dutch Genre, a style that depicted domestic scenes. This return to realism, some think, was brought about by the predominately Protestant culture. However, since Catholic Dutch artists such as Vermeer also contributed to this genre we must assume that the trend towards realism was more national than sectarian . Many painters rejected the fantastical and the supernatural choosing to paint the everyday instead. Both the "Woman Holding a Balance" by Johannes Vermeer and "A Mother lacing her bodice beside a cradle" by Pieter de Hooch construct a particular notion of femininity created by the use of women in domestic scenes.
Another major development in the painting world was the development of an art market. This can be contributed to the fact that the Dutch, being Protestant, did not have highly decorated churches and had little need for religious images. However, a large number of Dutch families were well off and were willing to purchase paintings to decorate their homes. This is the first time in history that artist were producing paintings not just on commission but for a general market. It is possible to assume that both Vermeer and De Hooch would have painted paintings for the purpose of selling them to the general public, not just for commission.
Because of the use of religious images in churches was no longer practiced, Dutch artists starting placing values normally found in religious images into their "natural" paintings. Because the paintings were based on reality and the values that they portrayed were well known to the viewer this new way of portraying religious images made them more assessable to the viewer. Dutch painters sometimes used symbolism to portray these values to the viewer. In some paintings, pictures on the walls in paintings would relate to the value. This is the case in Vermeer's "woman holding a balance". Other times the picture as a whole was represented the value like in "a woman lacing up her bodice beside a cradle" by De Hooch.
"Woman holding a balance" by Johannes Vermeer, painted around 166-64 is a good example of a Dutch Genre painting. This painting shows a woman standing in front of a table, holding a balance. The white and blue of woman's dress contrasts the black of the painting behind her. On the table are several boxes, from which jewelry and pearls spill out. It was once thought that the balances held either gold or pearls. This resulted in the painting being known as "a woman weighing gold" or "a woman weighting pearls". However, upon closer examination it was proven that the balances were indeed empty. The paint used to paint the balances was different than the paint used to paint the gold, and the technique used to paint the pearls differed from the technique used on the balances. The woman does not look at the viewer; instead she looks down at her balance. The light coming from the window above her lights her face. Above the table there near the light source and facing the woman there hangs a mirror.
Vermeer uses light to divide the room diagonally into two triangles, one of light and one of dark. The viewer's attention is focused on the center of the painting, that is, the woman's hand that is holding the balance . Vermeer does this however, without distracting the viewer too much from the woman's overall appreance . Behind the woman, facing the viewer, is a painting of the "Last Judgement". The woman is aligned so that her head falls in the middle of the painting, over the traditional position of St. Michael . Christ is pictured with arms upheld, with the righteous on his left side and the sinners on his right.
Another interesting detail in this painting is Vermeer's expressive use of light. Vermeer's painting posses the quality of seeming to contain more light than the actual light sources in that painting allow for. Light was a significant metaphor in the art world as a symbol of divine light. Light was also meant to symbolize the disclosure of truth. Vermeer intended for every detail in this painting to be significant . This image is described as having a "timeless grandeur, balance and serenity despite the everyday theme .
Most interpretations of this painting focus on the act of weighing and judgement. The items before the woman are elements that belong in and are valued in the temporal world . These objects are in a sense, temptations toward material glory . The image of Christ reminds the viewer that though the woman's judgments are temporal, Christ's judgement is eternal. The upward gesture of Christ's arms mirrors the opposing direction of the balance that the woman holds . It has been suggested that Vermeer is trying to convey a message that the viewer should try to lead a life of temperance and balanced judgement . The mirror on the wall reflects the woman's search for self-knowledge . There has also been some speculation over whether the woman pictured is pregnant or if it is just the style of dress. If Vermeer had intended to woman to be with child the interpretation of the painting varies slightly. It has been suggested the intended meaning of the painting would once again focus on the balance but this time the focus would be on the fate of the woman's unborn child. However, because it can not be proven that the woman is pregnant most often it is assumed that she is not. It was also once suggested that this painting was a Vanitas image that Vermeer wanted to viewer to reflect upon the material treasures that were to be weighed compared to the weighing of souls on Judgement Day . However, this idea has been increasingly rejected over the years, especially after the discovery of the empty balances . The new idea that has emerged is that this image has illusions to the virtues of honesty, justice, temperance and moderation .
The image intitled "A mother lacing her bodice beside a cradle" by Pieter de Hooch was painted around 1661-166. This is another classic example of Dutch Genre painting. De Hooch, unlike Vermeer, did not confine himself to painting only interior spaces but also painted courtyards. This painting shows a bedroom scene, a mother sits beside her baby's cradle, lacing up her bodice. The viewer is lead to assume that she has just finished breastfeeding her child. There is a smile on the mother's face as she gazes at the wicker cradle. A brass bed warmer hangs beside the bed and on the wall a red clock or skirt hangs on a peg. In the room there is an enclosed bed, covered by a striped curtain . This bed was the typical style found in Dutch houses around this time. De Hooch uses the practice of doorkijkje in this painting. That is, of opening the vista from one room to another, and there again from there to the street . In this painting, the viewer can see into the front hallway, where a young child stands silhouetted near an opened half-door leading out to the street. A dog stands by the mother's feet. In the corner of the room a candle and jug stand on a cloth-covered table. Several pictures hang on the wall but De hooch does not show any of them in detail.
Both "Woman holding a balance" and "A mother lacing her bodice beside a cradle" were painted in Deft. However, these two paintings were painted in the same town around the same time have completely different styles. Vermeer is known for his use of light and use of symbolism. In the "Woman holding a balance" he makes use of both of these techniques. Although the painting seems simple enough, when examined closely it proves to carry several meanings. De Hooch's painting seems to have more detail in it, but it doesn't have the second meaning.
Holland in the seventeenth century was an independent nation, with control over her own politics and religion. In a time where politics and religion went hand in hand it in no small wonder that the Protestant church had such a large influence over the country. Seventeenth century Dutch culture was 'governed' by Protestant morality. Cleanliness was next to godliness and Dutch cities were known for their spotless houses and streets. This obsession with cleanliness may have been related to patriotism to one's country. If one remained vigilant against germs and dirt, one was metaphorically also remaining villiagant against the unclean and heathen invaders on one's homeland .
The management of the household was the woman's job; this domestic role was proof of her power in society . It was also expected that the female with her weaker body was more suited to the home. Good Dutch women were also expected to be virtuous. The commonwealth, Dutch moralists seemed to insist, stood or fell by the virtue of their women . Jacob Cats encouraged aspiring brides to have the "spirit of Sarah, the virtue of Ruth and the humility of Abigail" . It is not surprising that many women failed to meet this ideal imposed by a male dominated society. This was not unlike any other European country of this time. However, with the importance placed on the family home by the Dutch Protestant church, this stereotype of the virtuous wife worked within Dutch culture with a particular intensity.
Most often in Dutch paintings of this era it is the mother, not the father, that is portrayed as the protectors of the household. Both Vermeer and De Hooch use women in their portrayals of domestic life. Vermeer is known for his extensive use of women models in his paintings. In the social context of the time it would have been more natural to view a woman, rather than a man, in a domestic setting. However, men were pictured in Genre paintings, most often in scenes of taverns or as soldiers. Vermeer often portrayed women looking away or down from the viewer. In the rare case that he painted a woman actually looking at the viewer she seems to look through, not at, the viewer . This reluctance of Vermeer's models to look out at the viewer may stem from the artist's wish to portray a virtuous woman, similar to ones found in 15-century portraits. In portraying a female both Vermeer and De Hooch are emphasizing the social values of the time. Not only are they reinforcing the importance of the household by portraying a clean and orderly home, they were also emphasizing the social norm of the time where the woman's place was in the home.
Women in seventeenth century Holland were observed by Joseph Shaw to be more moral and happier than English women were. He attributed this to the fact that women were better provided for by the laws in their country; "so that they are not forced to trust their wits, nor put on those pitiful shifts to jilt mankind and bubble their husband for money ". It is true that compared to other seventeenth century European countries women did enjoy a fair amount of freedom and legal right. Some widows were even allowed to inherit their late husband's estate .
Vermeer and De Hooch's styles of painting varied, as did their choice of subject matter. Vermeer is known for his use of light to emphasize a scene. He was also known for his use of symbolism to portray a subject.
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