The Dynamics of Culture

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One of the factors that makes the world an interesting globe is the diversity of the cultures of its various nations. There are several definitions put forward for the term

(1) Recurrent, accepted and expected ways of thinking and acting.

() A collection of knowledge, belief, art, morals, law and customs acquired by man as a member of society.

() Patterns of behaviour, attitudes, values and ideas that people learn in connection with social living.

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Whatever the definition, the most noticeable feature about culture, is that it is a common behaviour among a group of persons. In other words, any activity that is carried out by one individual cannot be viewed as culture, if other members of the group to which that individual belongs are not also participating in that particular activity.

Behaviour, in the definition of culture, does not refer to just an act but moreso to thinking, and feelings as well as actions. Further, this type of behaviour is learned a type that is acquired through societal influences. We think and do what society tells us to think and do.

One important characteristic of culture is that it is inherited. As a matter of fact, culture has been referred to as the total social inheritance of a people. This means that certain behaviours which are not biologically inherited, are socially learnt or passed from one generation to the next and are shared by most human beings or specific designated sets of them. Sometimes a culture is best examined by looking at what is referred to as culture traits. These are small broken down elements or units, which represent single combinations of acts and ideas related to a particular need or situation.

Sub-Cultures

These are cultural patterns that set apart some segment of a society's population; or characterized patterns that develop among different racial, ethnic or religious group of people who, at the same time, share the general culture; or various groups within a society whose folkways and mores differ from those of society at large. Examples of sub-cultures include, Rastafarianism, Revivalism and Homosexuality. Sub-cultures are formed primarily because of diversity in the make-up of the society. They are characterized by distinctive language usages, religious practices, food preferences, music, celebrations, styles of dress, historic identification and pride of heritage.

One must not forget occupational sub-cultures a group of individuals who share a distinctive occupation. They have a set of values of their own, they speak using jargon exclusive to their profession and they know things and have ideas that are not shared among most members of the society.

Sub-cultures, though they are a source of pleasing variety, can also be the cause of tensions and outright violence. In many developed countries, such as the former nation of Yugoslavia, a civil war broke out and this was propelled by sub-cultures rising up against each other. In Jamaica, a few years ago the Rastafarian Movement rose up against the norms of society when they demonstrated against the illegality of the Marijuana plant. The Rastafarians, who use the rug as an important item in their religious rites, were asking that the banned substance be decriminalized. Members of the Jamaican society at large know and accept that the possession and use of Marijuana as a misdemeanor is one of that society's norm.

Components of Culture

Culture is made up of a number of elements. Some of these are of more importance in shaping social relationships than others. Among these are, Symbols, language, values, beliefs and norms.

A symbol is anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share culture. It is a composite of two things a meaning and a physical structure. The physical form is the vehicle by means of which the meaning is transmitted. The meaning of the physical form is subjectively assigned by society; it is not elemental to the thing itself. For example, for one society, using the middle and index fingers to make a 'v' means 'peace to you', yet in another the same sign, shown to someone is an insult.

Language is very important part of culture. The chief reason human beings are the only living organism that possesses culture is because we have language. Language enables man to transmit ideas about situations. The information, attitudes and values of each generation can be passed on to the succeeding generation through language. Language is one of the more reliable ways to differentiate between cultures.

Values are an important element of culture because they specify the types of goal we seek. These are culturally defined standards by which people determine what is desirable, worthwhile, good or beautiful and which serve as a broad guideline for social living. Values are learnt from families, schools and religious organizations, which tell us how to think and act according to approved principles.

Beliefs basically consist of what we think to be true. They are important in shaping our behaviour since we act on the basis of what we believe to be true, regardless of what the objective truth might be. For instance, we have beliefs about the beginning of the human race creationists believe that God created us all, while evolutionists believe that we evolved from another form of creation. Whatever one believes he considers it knowledge, yet another who believes differently will regard that belief as ignorance or even superstition.

Norms are the rules and expectations by which a society guides the behaviour of its members. They provide guidelines for the way we live our lives. Norms regulate human interaction. The norms of our society tells us we should marry only one partner at time, that we should go to school, that we should say sorry when we hurt someone, that we should brush our teeth regularly, that we should not commit incest, that we should take care of our children and elderly. The fact that most of us feel obligated to follow such expectations determines what we expect others to do and how we are expected to treat them. These mutual understandings enable us to maintain a network of interaction.

Norms are categorized in two ways, ideal and statistical. Those norms that specify what we should or should not do are called ideal, while statistical norms are what people actually do. For example, while completing all scholastic endeavours before settling down to start a family is the ideal norm, research actually shows that more than 50% of persons enrolled in colleges and universities, have already completed or in the process of completing their families. In this case the statistical norm and the ideal norm are not in accordance.

There are speculations with regards to the emerging of norms. Some sociologists say that patterns become permanent as we repeat those actions that are rewarding to us and abandon those that are not. For instance, people respond more positively to others when they bathe frequently, so they tend to repeat this behaviour until it becomes a pattern. Others say that norms emerge when people, over a period of time, work out solutions for meeting their needs. Still others suggest that norms reflect the interests of the dominant group in a society since they have the power to influence the direction society takes.

Some norms are proscriptive mandating what we should not do, like we should not steal, we should not litter, we should not eat human flesh. Other norms are prescriptive prescribing or spelling out what we should do, like we should love our children, obey our parents, go to church, use deodorant.

Folkways and Mores These are two types of norms of particular interest to sociologists. Folkways are informal norms governing social conduct developed through customs. They have lesser moral significance than mores, which are based on the important moral judgments of a society. When one thinks about mores, he thinks about what society say is right and what is wrong, good and evil, moral and immoral. Because mores are very important for society's welfare, violation of mores carries very severe penalties. Therefore, a person who sexually abuses a child is not only seen as uncultured, but is immoral and the implications for punishment are very unsympathetic. Folkways, on the other hand, determine what is right and what is rude. Violation of folkways means violation of etiquette, fashion and social standards. A person who slurps soup or wear sneakers with a tuxedo, or does not mow his lawn nor eat with silverware, is just seen as uncouth.

Laws are another type of society's norms. The difference with this type of norm is that they are social rules that have been formally coded. The objective of laws is to provide some form of control of certain forms of conduct. Laws are sanctioned by a legislative or regulatory body, thus they are 'official'. There is a clearly set out punishment for the breaking of laws or crimes, enforced by specific agencies, such as the police and the courts. One set of sociologists called Functionalists, say that the enforcement of laws is a way for people in a society to protect their common life through the state. However, another group called, Conflict Theorists, sees the law as the way in which one powerful group imposes its rules upon the rest of the society, using the state as its agency to do so.

Folkways, mores and laws are interconnected to some extent. For example, violation of certain mores is not only immoral, but also unlawful. In one instance, to commit murder is an infringement of society's mores but it is also an act against the law and therefore merits punishment as set out by the law.

It is difficult to overemphasize the significance of culture as a decisive factor of human behaviour. One way to perceive the importance of culture is to visualize a society without it. We would have no language to express our thoughts; no standards by which to live; no established right or wrong. We wound not even know what is harmful to us. It is safe to conclude that culture has established its place in society and that society would not, could not, exist without it. If one knows a culture then he knows his way around life.

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Depression of Holden Cawfield

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Depression of Holden Cawfield

The Catcher in the Rye, by J.D. Salinger, portrays Holden Cawfield a New York City teenager in the 150s as a manic-depressive. The depressions of Holden start with the death of his younger and beloved brother Allie . Holden is expelled from numerous schools because of his bad academic work which is caused by his depression. Additional to his manic depression, Holden is also a big lyer, and very immature.

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The main cause for Holdens depression is Allie. Holden has a weird manner to look upon people which eventually leads to him being expelled from his school. The reader can initially recognize his depression when Holden describes how he packs his bags to leave school after being notified that he is expelled. Holden leaves school and heads for New York City, where he finds himself to be more lonely and depressed than ever. He is all alone and thinks about suicide.This shows another property of his character. He is not at all satisfied with his life. He is too ashamed of himself to return home because he knows that his mother will be upset and his father will be angry with him.

Holden expresses many thoughts of depression. Compulsive lying is another characteristic that Holden shows. Holden would tell people lies just so they could not become closer to the real Holden. Holden tells lies on numerous occasions to gain attendance. For example Holden pathetically tells Mrs. Morrow that he is going to have a tiny operation because he has a tumor in his brain. With this lie Holden achieves the Mrs. Morrow is sorry for him. Then he states that he can lie for hours if he feels like it. This compulsive lying shows that Holden is not satisfied with himself and that he feels that people will judge him critically.

Holden is also a very immature person. He becomes very jealous and he pretends that recess is everywhere. Holden shows his jealousy for example when he finds out that his roommate is dating Jane Gallagher. Jane is Holdens next door neighboor who he used to be friends with. Holden expresses these feelings to the reader while he is talking to Stradlater about Jane. The jealousy and immaturity of Holden leads them into a fight. Another example is how Holden describes his relationship to females. He keeps on telling them how much he loves them, but really does not.

I believe Holden is a very complicate character who criticizes everything that people around him do but really does the same things they do. He is very lonely but in his loneliness he tries to preserve the innocence of weaker people. Overall are his depressions very serious and need to be solved somehow.

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COMPARISON/CONTRAST OF "A & P" / "SOLDIER'S HOME"

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If one is to compare and contrast the short stories A & P, by John Updike, and A Soldier's Home, by Ernest Hemingway, they must look beyond the obvious. One knows by reading that there is a distinct difference in time as well as place. Oklahoma is, after all, quite a ways away from the beach as most know. To compare or contrast the aforementioned short stories in a deeper context, a large amount of the focus must be centered on the main characters Sammy and Krebs.

Sammy is disillusioned with the life he is living; day in and day out, the same monotonous occurrences populate his existence at the "A & P". But this all changes one day as three bikini-clad vixens walk into his life. After being badgered by Sammy's boss, Langel, for not wearing the "proper" public attire, the girls leave. Sammy, being imbued with a certain sense of heroism, defiantly quits his job; in some ways hoping this show of rebelliousness will bring him to "Queenie's" attention. Unfortunately for Sammy, the girls are gone by the time he leaves the store. It's interesting to note that one can go to extreme measures, perhaps even life affecting ones, in order to put some kind of spark or change into their life. Sammy attempts to do so, but his acts take a turn for the worse as he finds himself with no girls, and now, with no job. Lengel sends a parting word to Sammy "You'll feel this for the rest of your life." Perhaps Sammy will, but maybe this action will be the catalyst for Sammy to take his life in a direction he chooses, instead of one dictated by others.

Krebs, on the other hand, returns to a world that is very different than the one he left. Finding himself cut off from the rest of the world, Krebs longs for women friends, but at the same time avoids them. He yearns for comfort and security, while at the same time rejecting them. An example of the latter is seen when Krebs tells his mother he doesn't love her, then turns around and reverses his sentiment. He is scarred by war, more psychologically than physically, as he found a new home on the front lines, one that he sometimes wished he had never left.

Sammy and Krebs are much alike when you break down their respective psyches. They both feel marooned from society. Sammy from one that he plays an almost robot-like role in, and Krebs, who feels disconnected from a society that he feels lost in. Maybe the reason why he feels lost like he does, is because he had been gone for so long that he felt out of place when he returned, even though his family welcomed him with open arms. Sammy feels lost as well, but not in the weary-war-veteran-returns way. More in the dreamy-small-town-kid-who-seeks-adventure-way. Reading the stories one after the other can give the impression that both want out; Sammy from his small town blues, and Krebs from his home back to what he believes is his real home, the war front. Sammy somewhat differs from Krebs in this regard, though.

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Sammy is determined to do something about his problem. As already noted, he quits his job on a whim for the purpose of getting a date. Even though that may sound silly, he still is on the path of change, for better or worse. Krebs, on the other hand, feels trapped in his hometown, as if the war were in another dimension. Unlike Sammy, he does nothing to improve his situation, and instead seems to sulk about life, devoid of energy and constantly fatigued. Maybe, his problem is that he wants to return to the camaraderie and freedom of the war, but not the frightening or grisly aspects of it. So in consequence, he must go through life like the proverbial zombie, not knowing where he will be going in the near future. Yet, Krebs does find solace. It appears in the form of his younger sister.

Sammy and Krebs both seek to get out, with the door being opened by their respective female companions. Even though Sammy and Queenie don't exchange dialogue in the story, Sammy still sees Queenie as a "way out". Krebs looks at his sister, Helen as his "way out". He is ready to go and watch her play indoor baseball instead of discussing the problems he had with his mother, and finally decides to get a job and start over in Kansas City. In a way, they both use females to help them attempt to "get out" of their current static lives.

Sammy and Krebs both share many similarities, but in some way they are very different. They both attempt to implement changes in their lives, whether they succeed or not is left for the reader to decide, as both stories end when their characters reach crucial crossroads in their lives. But one thing that can be agreed upon is that both are young, not boys, but not yet men, and attempt to parlay this confusion in similar, but sometimes differing, ways.

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The Legend of Sleepy Hollow

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THE LEGEND OF SLEEPY HOLLOW

By Washington Irving

The Legend of Sleepy Hollow by Washington Irving is about the consequences of obsessions. The story takes place in a remote market town in New York and is about a man named Ichabod Crane and his love for a lady named Katrina Van Tassel, whom was also loved by another man named Brom Bones. The growing rivalry between the two men causes quite a few problems. Ichabod wanders out into the forest one night and is confronted by the ghost of an old Hessian trooper who ends up knocking Ichabod of his horse and possibly killing him. In my opinion, the cause of this mishap may have resulted from Ichabods love for Katrina.

Ichabod Crane is, in my opinion, the protagonist of this story. Ichabod was extremely funny looking. The book describes him as "Tall but exceedingly lank, with narrow shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled a mile out of his sleeves, feet that might have served as shovels, and his whole frame most loosely hung together. His head was small, and flat at top, with huge ears, large green glassy eyes, and a long snipe nose, so that it looked like a weathercock, perched upon his spindle neck". He was also a fragile schoolteacher who seemed to have goals and dreams and was kind to others, especially his students. The book even states, "He was even the companion and playmate of the larger boys; And on holiday afternoons would convoy some of the smaller ones home". Ichabod was also in love with a young lady named Katrina Van Tassel and according to the book "Ichabod Crane had a soft and foolish heart toward the sex." And I think she may have got him into more trouble then most are willing to admit.

Brom Van Brunt, sometimes known as "Brom Bones", is whom I see to be the Antagonist of this story. Brom is a beefy handsome man who "Was broad shouldered and double-jointed, with short curly black hair". He didn't seem to be a very good gentleman, the book states "He was always ready for either a fight or frolic; he had more mischief then ill will in his composition; and with his overbearing roughness, there was a strong dash of waggish good humor at bottom". Brom was also, like Ichabod, after the heart of Katrina Van Tassel, The books states that "This rantipole hero had for some time singled out the blooming Katrina for the object of his uncouth gallantries". This little rivalry for Katrina seemed to cause quite a bit of tension between the two.

One of the most significant characters in this story is Katrina Van Tassel, the lady who had both the protagonist and antagonist after her heart. The book described her as "A blooming lass of fresh eighteen; plump as a partridge; ripe and melting and rosy-cheeked as one of her father's peaches, and universally famed, not merely for her beauty, but her vast expectations". At one point Ichabod danced with her at a party and the book states that "Brom Bones, sorely smitten with love jealousy sat brooding by himself in one corner." I see Katrina as the cause of Ichabod's death. He was too caught up in winning her that he failed to notice his surroundings, such as Brom and his growing jealousy.

The story seems to be about Ichabod Crane's obsession with a Katrina Van Tassel and Brom Bones who wants to have this lady for himself. It all takes place in a small, remote, peaceful town whose only excitement seems to be in ghost stories. The inciting incident is when the story first introduces Ichabod's love for a lady, in which the book states "…If his path had not been crossed by a being that causes more perplexity that ghosts, goblins, and the whole race of witches put together, and that wasa woman". This all slowly develops into something bigger when Brom Bones and his interest in Katrina is introduced, "This rantipole hero had for some time singled out the blooming Katrina for the object of his uncouth gallantries". The rivalry between the two is then introduced on page 1 where the book states, "Such was the formidable rival with whom Ichabod Crane had to contend, and, considering all things, a stouter man than he would have shrunk from the competition, and a wiser man would have despaired". Brom Bones was then constantly picking on poor old Ichabod and even went as far as to ridicule him in front of Katrina, "Brom took all the opportunities of turning him into ridicule in presence of his mistress, and had a scoundrel dog whom he taught to whine in the most ridiculous manner, and introduced as a rival of Ichabod's to instruct her in psalmody". Later Ichabod seemed to get back at Brom by dancing with Katrina at a party, the book says that "The lady of his heart was his partner in the dance, and smiling graciously in reply to all his amorous oglings; while Brom Bones, sorely smitten with jealousy, sat brooding by himself in one corner". It seemed that Brom Bones had had enough, and Ichabod headed home during the night. Ichabod was then confronted by the fabled ghost of Sleepy Hollow, The Headless Horseman. After a long chase with the ghost the story then hit the climax in which the story says, "Just then he saw the goblin rising in his stirrups, and in the very act of hurling his head at him. Ichabod endeavored to dodge the horrible missile, but too late. It encountered his cranium with a tremendous crashhe was tumbled headlong into the dust, and Gunpowder, the black steed, and the goblin rider, passed like a whirlwind". The story then enters the resolution saying "The next morning the old horse was found without his saddle, and with the bridal under his feet, soberly cropping the grass at his masters gate" and "The brook was searched, but the body of the schoolmaster was not to be discovered". In the denouement Brom ends up marrying Katrina and all that remains of Ichabod are the stories and opinions that the townspeople spoke of, such as "… brought home the intelligence that Ichabod crane was still alive; that he had left the neighborhood partly through fear of the goblin…" and "The old country wives, however, who are the best judges of these matters, maintain to this day that Ichabod was spirited away by supernatural means."

The story takes place in a small market town on the shore of the Hudson River in New York known as Sleepy Hollow. The town is known as a very calming place, the book states that "A drowsy, dreamy influence seems to hang over the land, and pervade the very atmosphere". The Narrator even makes a personal comment on it saying "If ever I should wish for a retreat, whither I might steal from the world and its distractions and dream quietly away the remnant of a troubled life, I know of none more promising than this little valley." The time period of the story is never stated clearly which in my opinion makes the town feel even more remote.

I see the theme of this story to be 'Do not be so obsessed with something that you fail to notice your surroundings'. I think the author wanted to convey this message to the reader to show what jealousy can really do to someone and how making them angrier might cause them to do something unexpected. There is one quote in particular that I think shows how Ichabod stopped noticing everything around him because he was so caught up in Katrina and that is "… Yet daylight put an end to all these evils; and he would have passed a pleasant life of it, in despite of the Devil and all his works, if his path had not been crossed by a being that causes more perplexity that ghosts, goblins, and the whole race of witches put together, and that wasa woman". I see this as an important lesson and it think it is what the author wanted the reader to learn from this book.

I found this novel to be a very good read, with a cool twist at the end. The authors storytelling ability was superb and helped make the book much more interesting and exciting, I especially liked the way he described things so specifically so you can really feel what he wanted you to, He did this with quotes like "He beheld something huge, misshapen, black and towering. It stirred not, but seemed gathered up in the glom, like some gigantic monster ready to spring upon the traveler". However, sometimes he used big or confusing words that would make the story a little hard to follow, such as "Reciting for their amusement all the epitaphs on the tombstones; or sauntering with a whole bevy of them". Lines like that made it really hard for me to understand what he was trying to say sometimes. The way he described the setting and characters however was great, he wrote extremely descriptive lines such as "… Broken down plough horse, that had outlived almost everything but its viciousness. He was gaunt and shagged, with an ewe neck and a head like a hammer; his rusty mane and tail were tangled and knotted with burrs; one eye had lost its pupil, and was glaring and spectral; but the other had the gleam of a genuine devil in it". However one thing that disturbed me about the way he described the setting was, he never gave a specific time period in witch the story took place. Whenever he was describing a time period it seemed to be very vague such as "In a remote period of American history". The authors style really made the story interesting. He basically let you create your own ending by not explaining entirely who the headless horseman really was, Some might think it was truly the ghost of an old Hessian trooper, others might think it is Brom Bones dressed up and out to kill the one who is trying to steal his girl. The other doesn't even specify whether Ichabod dies or not, he states the opinions of the townsfolk in lines like "… brought home the intelligence that Ichabod crane was still alive; that he had left the neighborhood partly through fear of the goblin…" and "The old country wives, however, who are the best judges of these matters, maintain to this day that Ichabod was spirited away by supernatural means." This lets the reader choose what ending he likes best.

I really did enjoy reading this book, I had not read it because I had assumed it was just a children's book, but the story turned out to be quite entertaining. I really enjoyed the way the story was so cleverly written and would recommend it to anyone that is looking for an exciting story.

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SARS and strife

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When American and Europe¡¯s economy is in slowdown, the Australian economy is still doing well. However, Tom Skotnicki, in his article ¡°Sars and strife¡± which was in the journal of Business Review Weekly on May 1-7 00, reminds that Australian should be aware of the potential economy crisis and prepare for it because of the external adverse economic condition would bring profound negative influence to Australian business. The author uses many data, evidences and experts¡¯ opinions to support his argument, and analyzes the reasons objectively. Thus, this article is quite worth reading.

In the first part of this article, Skotnicki claims that a possible economic crisis might come and the Australian economy would be overwhelmed at this time without preparation. Although the Australian economy survived from the Asian economic crisis in 17-8 and the global slowdown in 001, it will face more challenges which come from the outside such as menace of Sars, depression in America and Europe, the political problem on the Korean Peninsula and the global instable oil price. Moreover, it becomes a barrier of the Australian exports that the Australian dollar maintains a high exchange rate.

In the other part, Skotnicki quotes several other economists¡¯ opinions who are the experts in this field. All of these economists mention that the economy of US and Europe will recover more slowly. Peter Drysdale, the professor of economics at the Australia National University, Saul Eslake, the chief economist of ANZ Banking Group and the Credit Suisse Asset Management economist Barry Hughes believe that Sars has clogged the world economy and would influence the whole world for a long time. Mark Vaile, the Trade Minister, focuses on the loss of export competitiveness because of the high exchange rate of Australian dollar. However, he argues that the problem of exports could be coped by exporters as long as the rate does not increase to US75cents. Among these four economists, there is only Eslake who suggests that Australian economy will improve in several years.

At the beginning of this article, Skotnicki states that the adverse economic conditions are including the fear of Sars, slow development of United Stated, less competitiveness of export, political problems of Korea and pressure of oil price. However, he has just analyzed the first three and do not mention the last two in the article. Moreover, the structure of the whole article is a little confusing. The author do not arrange the materials in a certain order, thus it is a little hard to read.

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Although there are two negative points in this article, it is still worth reading. Initially, this topic is a quite controversial and complex argument. It just happens in the future, and what people could do is only making hypothesis based on information of many fields. The author reminds people to pay attention to the future of Australian economy, and analyzes the reason, which might obstruct the development of economy accurately and comprehensively. It also shows that Skotnicki is a sensitive person and has a wide range of knowledge in many fields.

Next, when Skotnicki explains the reasons, he uses many relevant examples and statistics to support his opinion, which are carefully collected. In addition, he not only just lists the evidence or data, but also interprets them. For example, he cites the definition of GDP in order to analyze the speed of economy development of US and Europe, which it enables readers to understand directly. Moreover, he also provides many details in this article, which enhance the deep understanding. He also quotes several professional economists¡¯ opinions who are the experts in these fields to strengthen his own statement.

Following that, the author presents his arguments objectively and cautiously the language of this article is objective and cautious. As a business article, the author does not use the motive language to make the readers believe something but uses the facts and statistics to present the realities. Moreover, Skotnicki has stated not only his own ideas, but also the opposite situation. He even does like this when he quotes the experts¡¯ opinions Although Eslake worry about the influence of Sars and slow development speed of American and European economy, he suggests that Australian economy will make improvement after a few years. Meanwhile, Skotnicki analyzes some questions with the facts and data directly, and inductive the answers. People could understand the circumstances of the economy as soon as they compare the statistics of GDP, and obtain the answers by themselves. It makes the article reasonable and logical.

In short, this article is extreme professional and objective since the author induces his argument from many relevant facts and data and supports his argument by several experts¡¯ opinions, which makes the article reasonably and reliably. Therefore, the readers can obtain an objective and comprehensive picture of Australian economic trend.

Skotnicki, T. 00 ¡®SARS and strife,¡¯ Business Review Weekly, May1-7, 00, pp.14-16

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Competency

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Q: Discuss the assertion that the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 was an attempt to deal with pauperism rather than poverty.

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Poverty has always been in existence in Britain, but because of social and economic changes in society during the late 18th and early 1th Centuries, the number of poor people rose dramatically. Poverty means having too little for a comfortable life, which was the situation for many people. Pauperism however meant being destitute, meaning so poor that you could not survive without help and that you were too poor to feed yourself or your family.

The Poor Law system was set up in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. It was legislated to help the poor people not to end up as paupers. Poverty had been largely due to an undeveloped economy in which famine and pestilence became recurring phenomena. A system of relief was needed in order to assist the poor. The parish became the primary unit in providing relief. The poor individuals residing within the parish boundaries could only receive this relief. This put tremendous pressure on parishes to give paupers the adequate amount of relief. As a result many parishes became overrun with too many poor people, and not enough assistance was administrated. For these reasons the problem of aiding the poor became regarded as the first English poor law. The old poor law had shown that poor relief confined to town parishes put too heavy a burden on them and as a result distribution of aid rather than alleviation of aid had been allotted in relieving the poor.

By 175 the Poor Law system was already facing problems, as the population increased so did the need for funding, housing and educating the poor. Changes bought about from farming and industry changes; poor harvest and unemployment increased the amount of people claiming poor relief. Many new schemes were introduced to cope with this problem. A system was set up in a town called Speenhamland where the poor received an allowance. The amount of relief a pauper received depended upon the size of his family and the cost of bread. Bread was the staple diet of the poor and as food prices began rising at a rate more than the average wage, the numbers of paupers claiming increased. This Speenhamland system was adopted throughout most agricultural areas of Southern England and the Midlands. Unfortunately as the population increased it became increasingly difficult and expensive for parishes who found it very hard to control how much they had to spend. Between 17 &175 a succession of poor harvests put wheat in very short supply, making bread very expensive. Wheat, which was 4s. d per quarter was 78s.7d by 175. (Taylor, D, 188 p.40). The old poor law of 1601 could not assign a good method of relieving pauperism in England.

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Attitudes began to harden towards the poor and Thomas Malthus a Utilitarian published an essay in 178 on why the Poor Law should be abolished, he was critical of the allowance system which he argued 'Encouraged early marriages and large families'. Malthus wrote ' A labourer should not get married until he had enough money to support a family. (Taylor,D,188 p4). This encouraged low wages because farmers knew that the workers were getting poor relief and would pay workers less wages. It also encouraged laziness, there was no need to go out and work so hard when they were receiving an allowance anyway. Ratepayers and church ministers criticized this as it was costing them, which was the biggest concern.

Conditions deteriorated in the workhouses as described in the Norwich Mercury in 18, 'The workhouse was a scene of filth, misery and indecency…imagine 600 persons badly looked after crowded into rooms seldom or never ventilated, swarming with vermin'. There were many reasons for reform and by 180 the whole Speenhamland system was unacceptable. People started to object to their conditions of work. Pauper's felt that they were being demoralized after doing full weeks work and still having to rely on poor relief.

In 18 a Royal Commission was set up to investigate the Poor Law. They were set up by the ideas from Jeremy Bentham, a Utilitarian. His ideas influenced many people. He believed 'All actions and laws could be judged against his Principle of Utility'. This principle would show if an action or law had 'Utility' or was useful in 'Bringing about happiness of the greatest number of people' (Martin,D 000 P56). This led to the Government to alter the Poor Law system.

However not everybody took the same view, as Bentham and 'Laissez-faire' was the name for the ideas of those who believed no action should be addressed at all by the government. Mr Isaac Willis a collector of the poor rates in the parish of St. Mary said ' Those who depend upon parish relief are dirty in their person and slothful in their ways' (Tonge,T 1 p40). Self-help was the root of all genuine growth in the individual and that no laws could make the idle work. The commission was headed by Economist Nassau & Senior and had twenty-six commissioners, the most prominent being Edwin Chadwick. It investigated whether reform was required by visiting parishes and by setting a questionnaire. The questionnaire proved unsuccessful because only 10% were returned covering only 0% of the population. The questions were poorly phrased which in turn produced misleading data. Chadwick's report was that the Poor Law looked costly, clumsy and was very wasteful. It also showed that pauperism was causing growing illegitimacy, low nutrition was causing early aging and sickness. The report also recommended that there should be only one poor relief for the whole country.

As a result in 184 the government passed the Poor Law Amendment Act and Chadwick became Secretary to the Poor Law Commission. Parishes were grouped into unions and by 188 there were 57 unions. In each union everybody who paid a poor rate elected a Board of Guardians, They were responsible for running the Poor Law in their union. Unions had to either build workhouses or adapt an existing one in which paupers would live. All families had to be separated from one another, women, men and children were all put in separate dormitories. They were made to live under strict conditions. The intention was to make it such an unpleasant place that it would only be entered as a last resort. 'Principle of less Eligibility' meant that working conditions inside the workhouses were worse than the conditions on the outside. The daily diet was intended to keep people alive but was deliberately kept uninteresting, beds resembled coffins and 'It was a true test between real pauperism and mere poverty, (Shuter.P 18 p144). Paupers were then given a uniform to wear with the letter 'P' for pauper on the back followed by the letter of the Parish. It was seen as a triumph that by making conditions worse in the workhouse a pauper would think twice about entering and if they did enter then they would have to pay the price, which was the cruel conditions. Punishing the paupers for their mistakes was seen as an incentive to get them back on their feet quicker. A report kept in a book that recorded punishments said ' Twenty nine women at the mill, neglecting and refusing to work, dinner and supper and milk stopped' (Shuter, D 18 p144).

The Poor Law Amendment Act 184 eventually led to immediate and visible economies, from an average of £6.75 million pounds per year in 180-4, the cost went down to £4.5 millions for 185-. This was mainly due to the poor fearing the workhouses. There were those who opposed the new law, workhouses were labelled as 'Bastilles' after a notorious French prison stormed during the revolution. The Times newspaper 'A champion of Laissez-faire' did not like the central administrators, they repeatedly printed articles condemning the Poor Law and the Commissioners.

Furthermore political riots broke out in the North of England, unemployment in the growing industrial cities tended to be short term therefore recipients of poor relief required only temporary help, further more to criticize workers as able bodied idle added insult to injury. The Poor Law did reduce the cost of poor relief in many areas but did not produce 'well regulated workhouses'. In the Andover scandal many paupers were starving and some were seen to be eating the bits of meat left on the bones that they made to crush in the workhouses, this was very bad for their health. Furthermore the cornerstone of the workhouse and of the outdoor relief was widely ignored and in 1847 the Poor Law Board replaced the Commission. (Martin, D 000 p 68).

Despite this The Poor Law Amendment Act was an attempt to deal with pauperism that just did not have the effect hoped by all. It was impossible to enforce the 'Principle of Eligibility' there was not enough space in workhouses to accommodate labourers who applied for the relief during the trade depression. The Poor Law Commission adopted a severe attitude to the poor assuming that all poverty wascaused by laziness. The real causes to the problem were overlooked such as population overgrowth and industrial changes.

Culpin, C (187) Making Modern Britain; Collins Educational

Martin, D (000) Britain 1815-1851 London; John Murray.

Mason, S (188) Work Out Social & Economic History London; Macmillan Education

Shuter, P & Child, J (18) The Changing Face of Britain; Heinneman Eduactional

Taylor, D (188) Mastering Economic and Social History Macmillan

Tonge, N (1) Industrialisation & Society 1700-114 Surrey; Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd.

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