Ideologies of Gender Roles

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The ideology of something is a lived experience and isn't categorized as true or false for it is always true since it is lived. Ideologies are used to obscure the structures of domination. As quoted by Terry Eagleton in "Marxism and Literary Criticism"

'superstructure' are certain forms of law and politics, a certain kind of state, whose essential function is to legitimate the power of the social class which owns the means of economic production, it also consists of certain 'definite forms of social consciousness' which is what Marxism designates as ideology.

(Eagleton 5)

By not accepting certain ideologies one can create an inter movement between the super structure and the base. If one is more passive to the certain ideology the structure that is already set up will not be disturbed. Gender role attitudes are generally conceived as opinions and beliefs about the ways that family and work roles do and should differ based on sex. The gender role ideology leads to the social structure that masks what the men are able to do and or get a way with. It is a form of the domination that is set for men over women. There are many ways to reveal the masks over people's eyes. In "White Tigers" and "No Name Women" by Maxine Hong Kingston among other things, she uses her story telling as a way to reveal the truths behind these social structures that relate to men and shows the lived experience of them with regard to women.

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Through the progression of "No Name Woman," Kingston details a story of her aunt who commits adultery. Throughout the memoir she uses different examples to show the dominance of men. As the men of China immigrate to America looking for work to send money home to their families, the women are expected to uphold the home front. "They expected her alone to keep the traditional ways, which her brothers, now among the barbarians, could fumble without detection….The work of preservation demands that the feelings playing about in one's guts not be turned into action." (Kingston 8) This shows the difference between the male and females. Her brother's could "fumble without detection," they could mess with the "traditional ways," but the expectation for the aunt was different, she was not allowed to make a mistake. Although the aunt is stuck in an unsuitable predicament, to understand why she is there is part of understanding how the village is blind by the ideology of gender roles, "it [ideology] signifies the way men live out their roles in class-society, the values, ideas and images which tie them to their social functions and so prevent them from a true knowledge of society as a whole" (Eagleton 16-7). The fact that her aunt is stuck with how she now has to live out her role that society has already placed on her, also blinds her from "a true knowledge of society." Before the villagers went to ransack the aunt's home Kingston writes, "The frightened villagers, who depended on one another to maintain the real, went to my aunt to show her a personal physical representation of the break she had made in the 'roundness'" (Kingston 1-). The thinking of the villagers and how they felt about the crime committed is portrayed here, which lays blame on the aunt. The aunt commits adultery and now because the blame is set upon her shoulders she has been made the one to make a break in the "roundness." The basis of ideology is serving its purpose by the making of the village people being blind towards the fact that the man who also has contributed to making the baby is now free to do what he pleases. The lived experience of the aunt is blame which leads her to silent her "inseminators" name and commits suicide to escape the harsh experience of blame and humiliation to the village people and herself. The humiliation and blame is what is weighed on her shoulders which is the common way to hide what the superstructure is trying to conceal; so she sees this blame and humiliation as normal. With this she abides the expected action created by blame and humiliation.

Kingston also wrote "White Tigers," which she uses her storytelling as a way to live out her possibilities within her storytelling. She is able to use her storytelling to do things that the gender ideologies constrict her from doing. After her heroic story of the great swordswoman, Fa Mu Lan, she leads into a story of her own life and an incident she had with her boss. He wants her to write invitations that are racists and she refuses. In turn he terminates her employment, "'you will be paid up to here,' he said. 'We'll mail you the check.' If I took the sword, which my hate must surely have forged out of the air, and gutted him, I would put color and wrinkles into his shirt" (Kingston 4). By using her story telling to illustrate what she would like to do to the boss she uses her story as a way to act on the possibilities that Fa Mu Lan had, but because she is living in a male dominated world has no chance. She is not allowed to speak up for herself when confronted with an unwanted predicament because of the roles that woman must play in society. At the end of "White Tigers" Kingston writes of the way that the imagined swordswoman and her similar

May my people understand the resemblance soon so that I can return to them. What we have in common are the words at our backs. The idioms for revenge are "report a crime" and not the beheading, not the gutting, but the words. And I have so many words-"chink" words and "gook" words too-that they do not fit on my skin." (Kingston5)

She talks of the "words at our back" meaning that she has this whole superstructure against her and that her only revenge is to make these stories up that help to reveal what she wants to do to her boss and how the ideology of gender roles holds her back from making this a reality. She speaks the truth through her paper to hold the representation of how she is oppressed through this ideology. As Eagleton writes on the production of ideas that deals with how ideology is set up for the base and superstructure, "It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but on the contrary, their social being that determines their consciousness" (Eagleton 4). Meaning that through life we develop the understanding of how it should be with consideration to how the society is. Kingston lives everyday with the dominance of man at her back. Although she uses her story to reveal what the ideology of gender roles mask, she knows that her writing is a tool which brings success to her, "When I visit my family now, I wrap my American success around me like a private shawl; I am worthy of eating the food" (Kingston 5). She knows her goal is to use her memoir as a way to show what is really going on and through this she knows she has succeeded. Her writing has allowed for her, in her own eyes, to go against everything that she was raised to believe through her family and through society.

In the duration of these two stories there are different aspects of the ideologies that our shown. Kingston shows the different ideologies such as blame, humiliation and oppression. These ideas are woven into how the ideologies of gender roles are thought of and how they lead to further mask superstructure. The ideology of blame is shown through the aunt in the act of committing adultery which is only put on the shoulders of the woman, while the man is not shown accountable for his actions. Humiliation is also a key ideology in "No Name Woman." Kingston's mother tells the story of her aunt to forewarn Kingston of humiliating the family and herself. She tells her this story as she is starting her period as a way to show the importance of learning from it. Yet, what Kingston reveals is how this story plays into the hands of ideology and continues the circle of disguising the way that society is structured so that males continue to dominate.

Kingston writes a memoir consisting of many pages of story telling. A memoir is something such as a journal, something to look back on in the future and remember the times. Kingston's use of story telling in a memoir is peculiar, but her intentions are for it to be this way. Throughout her writing she had undoubtedly written of the ideology of gender roles. By showing how dominant men are compared to women. By doing this it shows how few possibilities a woman has in the world. Yet she reveals her lived experience as a way for the reader to understand the superstructure that is set up which favors the men's role in society and helps to oppress women. Her use of this in a memoir is not only for her to see how the structure has changed, but also to use it as a tool to create an inter-movement between the base and the superstructure. She challenges the ideology of gender roles through her writing. Terry Eagleton writes of the reflection of the experience, "art does more than just passively reflect that experience. It is held within ideology, but also manages to distance itself from it, to the point where it permits us to 'feel' and 'perceive' the ideology from which it springs" (Eagleton 18). Meaning that Kingston's literature is not a reflection of the ideology, but she uses it to distance the literature from ideology so that the reader can perceive it even as it is representing it. Her representation brings about stakes which is that of going against the superstructure to make a change in it. With her two pieces representing these possibilities leads to the collaboration of a book of memoirs. This book being made in hope that the memoirs are something she can look back on and see that she has helped unmask something that has oppressed her for so long and has finally created a change for others. Kingston has thus helped to identify the ideology of gender roles and allowed the readers to understand the experience. As Eagleton uses in closing

Illusion - the ordinary ideological experience of men is the material on which the writer goes to work; but in working on it he transforms it into something different, lends it a shape and structure. It is by giving ideology a determinate form, facing it within certain fictional limits, that art is able to distance itself from it, thus revealing to us the limits of that ideology. In doing this, Macherey claims, art contributes to our deliverance from the ideological illusion. (Eagleton 1)

This is just what Kingston does; she delivers the ideological illusion of gender roles. She demonstrates throughout the two memoirs, "No Name Woman" and "White Tigers" the difference of elements that help to construct the overall gender ideology. So, through writing and story telling Kingston was able to uphold her goal of the revelation of the gender ideologies that give the upper hand to men and continually keep the woman less dominant.

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The art of giving

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Remembering the practice of sacrificing with all kinds of various donations to gods in the ancient past, it is clearly seen that different forms of giving have existed ever since mankind has. Of course nowadays the situation is much more complex and people in our culture do not feel obligated to compliment gods with material donations in order to feel secure and protected anymore, although some do argue the opposite and try to point out parallels with todays taxing system. Not concentrating on that particular donations we can nevetheless say that the act of giving has developed into a inevitable part of our lives and has now many different purposes, mainly to bring joy to someones life, but more and more mistreatments of it are taking place as well.

Nowadays, there are many occasions where some sort of a gift has become a requirement as a sign of devotion or respect; one will face great amounts of resentfulness if he/she forgets to present something on an important birthday, anniversary, funeral or some other holiday. In this way, I feel that giving is slowly losing its original beauty, because of the mechanism that is now accompanying it. Furthermore, it can also be exploited in several aspects, to mention perhaps the emotional blackmail and imposing the feeling of guilt when trying to win someones affection, with words like Look at how much I gave you. Now you certainly belong to me. Another thing that is staining this process is the showing off and competition - by giving big expensive gifts on, for instance, a birthday party, one wants to reveil his/her high social status and longs to appear superior to others. A problem that can also occur, mostly in parenting, is the case of exagerrating and therefore spoiling a child; we have to be very carefull in choosing the appropriate gift as well as timing in order to prevent these gifts to lose their meaning.

The act of giving is therefore not so innocent and always well-intended as it may seem. From my point of view, I would have to say that something that has been bought out of a sense of obligation is not even a real gift, because it should always come from the heart, with a purpose to enrich someones life and show him/her that you care. I think that gifts that have the greatest value are the ones that are not given on any specific event but rather in an affect of a person who wants to express his emotions; they do not need to have long-term effcts for they can just brighten-up the day and bring a smile on the receivers face as well as on the donators who gets a warm notion that he/she has done a good deed. From this prospective it is also noticeable how insignificant the role of money really is. It does not matter how much you spend, it is not even needed for a gift to be materialistic; a precious gift can be a good friendship, a helping hand when needed or just a simple smile and a kind word.

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Th Penalty

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attack the death penalty. They will give emotional speeches about the one innocent man or woman who might accidentally get an execution sentence. However, all of these people are forgetting one crucial element. They are forgetting the thousands of victims who die every year by the hands of heartless murderers. There are more murderers out there than people whom are wrongly convicted, and that is what we must remember. We must remember how unethical it is to have a loved one murdered by a person who may get life in prison…prison meaning three meals a day, cable TV, and a warm bed to sleep in.

I, as well as many others, have total confidence in the death penalty. It is a very beneficial component of our justice system. The death penalty saves lives. It saves lives because it stops those who murder from ever murdering again. It also deters potential murderers from ever committing the crime. Unfortunately, the death penalty is currently used so rarely that it isn't nearly as effective as it could be. In order for it to work, we must put it into practice more often.

If the death penalty has been declared legal, then the federal and state governments must employ it to its fullest as a means of stopping previous murderers from recommitting their crimes. Since most of the prisoners on death row are there for murder, executing them would ensure that they would never kill again. Obsessive murderers, who know no alternative to killing, need to be executed to protect both prison guards and society.

Socrates would be a philosopher that would be pro-death penalty. A quote by Socrates is "People do the right thing if they can; and if they do bad, do harm, or do evil, it is out of ignorance of what is good." He is a moral philosopher who believed that the key to a good life lay in the proper knowledge of what was good. Even though ironically enough, Socrates was sentenced to death himself. He was a philosopher who knew good from bad and would feel no pity for a hard criminal who was getting executed.

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Aristotle, on the other hand, would argue with the death penalty saying that everything has a good as well as that everything has a function. This is stating that even though a person could be a mass serial killer, he or she would still have some good on the inside of them. Aristotle also believed that the best good is happiness, again going against the death penalty in a way. Murdering could be someone's extreme happiness, being their highest good, even though murdering is highly illegal in our society today.

Not only would Socrates agree with the death penalty, but Hobbes would as well. Hobbes was important in philosophy for insisting that the only means for ensuring the people follow his "moral rules" is a strong government. A strong government in this situation is one that doesn't sit back and watch all of our communities turn into chaos, and one that supports and promotes the death sentence. Hobbes believed that society adopts these moral rules because rational people recognize that without such rules, society gives way to a war against all, in which everyone is bound to suffer. The death penalty would be the solution to the unrational people in society that do not respect and follow the rules.

Another philosopher that would support the death penalty would be Aquinas. Being is the first thing that falls under the apprehension of the practical reason, which is directed to action. Consequently, the first principle in the practical reason is one founded on the nature of good…that good is that which all things seek after. That is the first precept of the law, that good is to be done and promoted, and evil is to be avoided. Evil, in this situation, would be murdering or doing anything to receive the death sentence. All other precepts of the natural law are based upon this; so that all the things which the practical reason naturally apprehends as man's good belong to the precepts of the natural law under the form of things to be done or avoiding, again such as murdering.

If the United States demonstrates that it is serous about using the death penalty through an increased number of executions, then potential murderers will know their fate before killing. They will know that if caught and convicted, they will face a sure death. In order to promote and maintain a sense of justice and moral order, the death penalty must be used more frequently and quickly. Because death is reserved as punishment for only the worst criminals, it is only fitting that they receive a punishment accordingly. The judicial system should not be afraid to retain the confidence of the public. In looking back to previous societies that relied upon the death penalty, such as ancient Athens and the Roman Empire, one realizes the effectiveness of this sentence and its usefulness as a tool for deterring crime. Although there is no punishment that can entirely eliminate violent crime, a more stringent use of the death penalty would significantly help. The United States must allow history to repeat itself as well as look at the work of philosophers and realize the wisdom that they held, and through more severe use of the death penalty, lessen violent crimes within society.

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Business Models

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Advertising subscription mixed model

This model has been used for many years by newspapers and magazines. Subscribers pay a fee and accept some level of advertising. Companies that have most success with this type of model tend to be established already. The financial review offers this subscription . You are able to receive some content without subscribing but to obtain all the features and benefits you must subscribe. The financial review also offers a reduced rate if you subscribe to the printed format.

Most advertising subscription models utilize the advertising revenue as their main support. Many online newspapers use the advertising so that a reader can come in and read articles but to view the classifieds you have to subscribe to the service.

TD waterhouse offers a subscription service by giving investors real time quotes on stocks and shares. The general public can visit the site and look up a stock quote but the price quoted has a 0 minute lag time.

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The subscription model is a tough model to make profitable as most users of the web do not want to pay per view.

Advertising supported model

The advertising supported model is the most common business model in media today. This is also true on the internet. Webmaster provide the content for free to an audience along with advertising messages. The model works if the advertising revenue is greater than the operations of running the website and providing the content.

The success of web advertising has been hampered by not knowing how to measure and charge for site visitors views.

Successful advertising models include Yahoo.com.

Yahoo for many people is a starting point for people using the web. Yahoo has become a major portal on the internet and this has allowed them to charge advertisers to display their ads on their pages. Yahoo can charge advertisers extra because it has the ability to create smart advertising. Smart advertising allows the page to display an add that may match the search on the yahoo search engine. A web surfer may be looking for white goods. When the results come back the top banner ad could be customized to bring back a Harvey Norman advertisement. Retailers may be willing to pay more for this customization.

Web employment advertising has proven very popular with advertisers.

Fee for transaction model

The fee for transaction model works by receiving a commission or brokerage for each transaction that is conducted. A travel agency receives a commission for each transaction that is conducted. Online travel agencies are a good example.

Another company is whatif.com.au this website allows you to find to 5 star hotels and pay a discounted price. The website receives a fee for each booking that is made.

Many commodity type websites are fee for transaction model. Stock brokerage firms that offer no advice have been set up to capture this market. Online trading has increased significantly over the last 5 years.

TdWaterhouse.com.au uses a fee for transaction model. They charge their customers a commission for each trade that is executed. Online brokers are replacing traditional broker services because many investors do not see any value in using a broker and paying $100 per transaction when they can have their order executed via an online stock broker for as little as $16. It is interesting to note that TD waterhouse are increasing their online brokerage charges from the 15th September to $5.5 per transaction. This may be due to less competition as there have been quite a few online brokers close there websites as the volumes were not being produced to make the online system profitable. Time will tell to see if TD waterhouse will lose market share because of the price increase.

Selling Goods and Services

Selling goods and services on the web is based on the traditional mail order catalog business that have been going on for many centuries. Tis model works by the website establishing a brand that conveys the image that is trying to be emulated. Many business use their traditional bricks and mortar type establishments that already have a market or brand image. With mail order catalog type business orders can be taken via the website if they have the necessary merchant facilities.

Rivers.com is a good example of a company that has a good name via its qultity clothing that has expanded its marketing presence by setting up a website that allows the consumer to view clothes see wehat is in stock and order and pay online.

Other websites allow you to custom build a product to your specifications like DELL you can order your own computer made to the specifications that you choose. You have choices over the components that are available.

Selling Information and Digital Content

Companies that own intellectual property or the rights to IP can sell their intelligence over the web.

http//www.onlinestockdata.com/onlinestockdata/default.htm is a company that sells data of all the stocks and other derivatives of the Australian stock market and other markets across the world. This information is used by investors to analyse stocks to see patterns and help with their investing.

Rivkin.com.au sells stock analysis directly. Subscribers receive a weekly newsletter that describes various stocks and gives recommendations on what should be bought and if purchased what stocks should be sold.

Adult entertainment is still the biggest and probably most profitable sites by selling digital content. The adult industry has been at the leading edge with most technology to help the web from compression techniques to credit card transactions

Auction Models

The auction model is an intermediary role between the buyer and the seller. The auction site offers a wide variety of goods and services. The exchange of goods is done through negotiationor bargaining between two entities.

Ebay is the market leader in auctions. The auction model that is used is the highest bidder model. A seller of a good fills out a form with description of the product, register in a category and possibly attach an electronic image. Once the goods or services are listed buyers are then able to start the auction. The auction is time bound so that when the time expires the highest bidder wind the auction. Ebay also show what the reserve for that item is as well.

In a reverse or Dutch auction, the price is initially set at a very high level, and drops at regular intervals. Participants can pick the price at which they want to buy, and have to determine the chance that someone else will find a higher price acceptable.

In a variant of the reverse auction, customers indicate a product or service and a price, which they are willing to pay. Suppliers indicate a price at which they are willing to provide that product or service, and the auction service tries to match customers and suppliers. The intermediary pockets the difference between the price paid by the customer and the price paid to the supplier (US 5,77,17; US 5,74,07). This model is popular with high-priced items like automobiles or airline tickets

Buyers club model

The buying group model allows several business owners to pool together there buying power to improve their negotiating power. With their market knowledge and expectatations and knowledge of legislative restrictions, the buying groups act as intermediaries for negation with suppliers. The buyers club handles all the distribution of product cateloges, financial transactions and delivery of merchandise.

The xxxxxx Website makes the most of this business model by offering an electronic tendering service via the Internet. This Website allows firms from the private sector to get access to public sector contracts. It displays calls for tender from all Government levels such as Federal, Provincial and Municipal in addition to hundreds of Universities, hospitals and school boards across Australia. xxxxx takes care of distributing and managing the information. Indeed, every day, this Website provides access to procurement opportunities for a certain fee.

xxxxx also facilitates the work of companies from the public sector as well as the different Government levels by taking care of the management process of call for tender notices and displaying them on their Website, therefore allowing for a larger distribution.

Barter Model

Just like in the good old days, the community alliance or barter model allows goods and services to be exchanged without money. Via the Internet, a business owner can barter physical space or other things with another company. For instance, a company can make its warehouse space profitable by offering another company the possibility of storing its products there temporarily. Or a company that manufactures wooden furniture can barter sawdust and old wood with a company that produces plywood.

The second variation of this model is the most virtual. In this case, the companies or people with access to this e-business model are members of different associations or companies. This type of site favors shared expertise and knowledge. For instance, a computer programmer with difficulty in finding a solution to a code can go to a community alliance site which is specialised in computers, communicate with other programmers, answer questions (if possible) and find a solution to his or her problem. Participants often give their codes for free in exchange for another service.

The Linux.com Website is the best example of the community alliance model. Linux, which offers a new alternative for a server operating system is in direct competition with Microsoft. However, Linux is unique as it seeks to use the computer communitys knowledge by offering the possibility to share knowledge and it allows a number of computer programmers to have access to its code. As described earlier, the strength of this e-commerce business model is to use the Webs advantages ) on-line discussions (chat) and e-mail ) to bring closer specialists and their experiences on a Website that favours exchanges. This system can be used for social purposes but it is particularly appreciated for technical support purposes

Virtual Mall

A virtual mall is a site that hosts many merchants, service providers, brokers and other businesses. The virtual mall operator typically charges a fee for setting up and maintaining the merchants booth, and for including him in the site-wide catalog. Additionally, he may charge a fee for every transaction the merchant performs. Virtual malls can operate within the context of a larger site, such as a portal.

The virtual mall can act as an intermediary between individual customers and the business it hosts, for instance by facilitating payment and guaranteeing a full refund if a merchant does not deliver in time.

When the virtual mall offers services such as payment facilitation or catalog browsing, it has the ability to create aggregated user profiles on the customers that visit any of the businesses in the mall. This can lead to the development of highly specialized malls (e.g., oriented at kids or sports lovers

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Civil Rights

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Many people believe that the Civil Rights Movement began during the period after the civil war. The Civil Rights Movement was the political, social and legal struggle by black Americans to gain full citizenship rights and to get racial equality. The biggest challenge of the civil rights Movement was segregation. Segregation was an attempt to separate the white and black races in every aspects of life to achieve white supremacy over blacks. Segregation became popular in the southern states following the end of the reconstruction in 1877. During the reconstruction period which followed the civil war most southern states was ran by blacks and republicans from the north. During this period the government passed laws opening up economic and political opportunities for blacks. By 1877 the Democratic Party regained control of the government in the southern states. The Democratic Party want to reverse black advancements made during the reconstruction period. To do this they began to pass local and state laws that specified places for whites only and others for colors. Blacks and white had they own restaurants, schools, transportation and parks. Many of these things for blacks were poorly funded compared to those of whites. This system also denied blacks the opportunity to vote. Between 180 and 110 all southern states pass laws that had special requirements for voting that prevented blacks from voting In spite of the 15th amendment to the constitution which was design to protect blacks voting rights. Some of these requirements was being able to read and write, property ownership, and paying a polls tax. If a black person was able to meet all these requirements he still was unable to vote in the democratic primaries because it was only open to whites. Because blacks were unable to vote they were powerless to stop whites from segregating the south.

Blacks fought against discrimination whenever possible. To protest Segregation blacks created national organizations like the National Afro Americans league and National Association for the Advancement of Colored people (NAACP). The NAACP became one of the most important black protest groups. It relied on legal strategies to fight against discrimination laws in court to get equal treatment for blacks. The NAACP legal strategies were very successful overturning many discrimination and segregation laws. The main focus of the NAACP was to integrate the educational system. In May 154 the Supreme Court issued a ruling in the Brown vs. Broad of education the stated that racially segregated education was unconstitutional. Following this decision racial group in the south came up with a strategy to persuade all whites in the south to resist compliance with the desegregation order. They believed if enough people refuse to cooperate the court order could not be enforced. Whites boycotted all schools that integrated and created all white private schools. As desegregation progressed, the Membership of the Ku Klux Kan grew.

The Ku Klux Klan was a secret terrorist group that originated in Pulaski, Tennessee in 1865. It was founded by Nathan Bedford Forest. Forest was a General in the Confederate army. The Ku Klux Klan was started to counteract the Republican Reconstruction governments and their leaders, both black and whites that came into power in the southern states in 1867. The Klansmen believed the reconstruction government as hostile and oppressive. They also believed that blacks was inferior and resented the rise of blacks to civil equality. Dressed in white sheets and pointed hoods Klansmen terrorize Public officials to drive them from office and blacks to prevent them from voting or holding any political office. It was customary for the Klan to burn crosses near the homes of the people they wanted to scare, if that didn't work they would just flogged, mutilate or even murder that person. They found these act necessary to defend white supremacy. The KKK used violence or threats against anyone who favored desegregation or blacks civil rights.

Despite the threats and violence the NAACP continue to challenge desegregation laws, like transportation. In 155 Rosa Parks was arrested in Montgomery Alabama for refuse to give up her seat to a white person. As a result to her arrest and local group called Montgomery Improvement Association led by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. organize a boycott of the Montgomery transportation system. The boycott lasted over a year and resulted in the Supreme Court to rule against the city segregated seating practice. The boycott made King a national figure. King became the president Of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC).

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SCLC was an organization of black churches and ministers which formed the backbone of the civil rights movement during the 150's 160's. The SCLC was founded in 157 after the boycott. The SCLC inspired my black leaders to believe that nonviolent directed protest might succeed against segregation where the legal strategies of the NAACP had yielded only slow changes. The SCLC led many nonviolent protests and anti segregation marches in Birmingham. These demonstrations eventually resulted in negotiation in the spring of 16 that desegregated restrooms drinking fountains lunch counters and fitting rooms throughout Birmingham.

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Enlightenment essay

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During the eighteenth century there was a great movement of intellect, ideas and reason. Some of these thoughts and beliefs were that men were born with unbreakable rights such as life, liberty, and right to own property. They also included the belief that people should have the right to govern themselves and that they should be able to get rid of a ruler that did not satisfy the people he was representing. These ideas were shared and rejected by many including rulers of countries. In Russia, Prussia, and Austria there were three rulers that both encouraged and rejected such ideas. Catherine the Great of Russia and Fredrick the Great of Prussia promoted these ideas unlike Maria Theresa of Austria who dejected them.

Frederick the Great of Prussia wanted to use the power and wisdom that he had to improve all of the lives of his people for he had a respect for humanity. Frederick the Great supported the enlightenment ideals while remaining an all-powerful leader, or despot. He believed that he was a first servant of state of that he was meant to serve his people and not the other way around. Frederick made many important changes during his rule in Prussia, which was during 1740 to 1786. His interest in many recent scientific advancements resulted in the use of new crops, which included potatoes and clover. Frederick also encouraged the use of new methods for planting and equipment, such as crop rotation and iron plows. Fredrick also promoted education and abolished most torture except in extreme cases such as treason and murder. Frederick was not the only European monarch to adopt the ideals of the enlightenment, Catherine the Great of Russia was also an enlightened despot of the late 1700s

Catherine the great of Prussia promoted ideas and beliefs that encouraged freedom of speech and right to happiness.

Pious and faithful but unfriendly toward the Enlightenment, Maria-Theresa has often been dismissed as a traditional dynast even though she did promoted a reformed legal system, encouraged education, increased industry growth, and lowered taxes. Her actions derived from a conviction that she held a trust from God and from a materialistic conception of her responsibilities. She was, however, intensely pragmatic, conscious of the obligations of power, and a shrewd judge of her ministers.

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Even though these ideas weren't encouraged in all countries they spread and became known throughout the world. Even on the other side of the earth in the new country that called itself the united stats of America used this way of thinking to base their country on. During this time there were three rulers, Catherine the Great of Russia and Fredrick the Great of Prussia promoted these ideas unlike Maria Theresa of Prussia who dejected them.

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Dutch genre

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The seventeenth century saw several changes in painting styles in Holland. One of the most significant was the emergence of the Dutch Genre, a style that depicted domestic scenes. This return to realism, some think, was brought about by the predominately Protestant culture. However, since Catholic Dutch artists such as Vermeer also contributed to this genre we must assume that the trend towards realism was more national than sectarian . Many painters rejected the fantastical and the supernatural choosing to paint the everyday instead. Both the "Woman Holding a Balance" by Johannes Vermeer and "A Mother lacing her bodice beside a cradle" by Pieter de Hooch construct a particular notion of femininity created by the use of women in domestic scenes.

Another major development in the painting world was the development of an art market. This can be contributed to the fact that the Dutch, being Protestant, did not have highly decorated churches and had little need for religious images. However, a large number of Dutch families were well off and were willing to purchase paintings to decorate their homes. This is the first time in history that artist were producing paintings not just on commission but for a general market. It is possible to assume that both Vermeer and De Hooch would have painted paintings for the purpose of selling them to the general public, not just for commission.

Because of the use of religious images in churches was no longer practiced, Dutch artists starting placing values normally found in religious images into their "natural" paintings. Because the paintings were based on reality and the values that they portrayed were well known to the viewer this new way of portraying religious images made them more assessable to the viewer. Dutch painters sometimes used symbolism to portray these values to the viewer. In some paintings, pictures on the walls in paintings would relate to the value. This is the case in Vermeer's "woman holding a balance". Other times the picture as a whole was represented the value like in "a woman lacing up her bodice beside a cradle" by De Hooch.

"Woman holding a balance" by Johannes Vermeer, painted around 166-64 is a good example of a Dutch Genre painting. This painting shows a woman standing in front of a table, holding a balance. The white and blue of woman's dress contrasts the black of the painting behind her. On the table are several boxes, from which jewelry and pearls spill out. It was once thought that the balances held either gold or pearls. This resulted in the painting being known as "a woman weighing gold" or "a woman weighting pearls". However, upon closer examination it was proven that the balances were indeed empty. The paint used to paint the balances was different than the paint used to paint the gold, and the technique used to paint the pearls differed from the technique used on the balances. The woman does not look at the viewer; instead she looks down at her balance. The light coming from the window above her lights her face. Above the table there near the light source and facing the woman there hangs a mirror.

Vermeer uses light to divide the room diagonally into two triangles, one of light and one of dark. The viewer's attention is focused on the center of the painting, that is, the woman's hand that is holding the balance . Vermeer does this however, without distracting the viewer too much from the woman's overall appreance . Behind the woman, facing the viewer, is a painting of the "Last Judgement". The woman is aligned so that her head falls in the middle of the painting, over the traditional position of St. Michael . Christ is pictured with arms upheld, with the righteous on his left side and the sinners on his right.

Another interesting detail in this painting is Vermeer's expressive use of light. Vermeer's painting posses the quality of seeming to contain more light than the actual light sources in that painting allow for. Light was a significant metaphor in the art world as a symbol of divine light. Light was also meant to symbolize the disclosure of truth. Vermeer intended for every detail in this painting to be significant . This image is described as having a "timeless grandeur, balance and serenity despite the everyday theme .

Most interpretations of this painting focus on the act of weighing and judgement. The items before the woman are elements that belong in and are valued in the temporal world . These objects are in a sense, temptations toward material glory . The image of Christ reminds the viewer that though the woman's judgments are temporal, Christ's judgement is eternal. The upward gesture of Christ's arms mirrors the opposing direction of the balance that the woman holds . It has been suggested that Vermeer is trying to convey a message that the viewer should try to lead a life of temperance and balanced judgement . The mirror on the wall reflects the woman's search for self-knowledge . There has also been some speculation over whether the woman pictured is pregnant or if it is just the style of dress. If Vermeer had intended to woman to be with child the interpretation of the painting varies slightly. It has been suggested the intended meaning of the painting would once again focus on the balance but this time the focus would be on the fate of the woman's unborn child. However, because it can not be proven that the woman is pregnant most often it is assumed that she is not. It was also once suggested that this painting was a Vanitas image that Vermeer wanted to viewer to reflect upon the material treasures that were to be weighed compared to the weighing of souls on Judgement Day . However, this idea has been increasingly rejected over the years, especially after the discovery of the empty balances . The new idea that has emerged is that this image has illusions to the virtues of honesty, justice, temperance and moderation .

The image intitled "A mother lacing her bodice beside a cradle" by Pieter de Hooch was painted around 1661-166. This is another classic example of Dutch Genre painting. De Hooch, unlike Vermeer, did not confine himself to painting only interior spaces but also painted courtyards. This painting shows a bedroom scene, a mother sits beside her baby's cradle, lacing up her bodice. The viewer is lead to assume that she has just finished breastfeeding her child. There is a smile on the mother's face as she gazes at the wicker cradle. A brass bed warmer hangs beside the bed and on the wall a red clock or skirt hangs on a peg. In the room there is an enclosed bed, covered by a striped curtain . This bed was the typical style found in Dutch houses around this time. De Hooch uses the practice of doorkijkje in this painting. That is, of opening the vista from one room to another, and there again from there to the street . In this painting, the viewer can see into the front hallway, where a young child stands silhouetted near an opened half-door leading out to the street. A dog stands by the mother's feet. In the corner of the room a candle and jug stand on a cloth-covered table. Several pictures hang on the wall but De hooch does not show any of them in detail.

Both "Woman holding a balance" and "A mother lacing her bodice beside a cradle" were painted in Deft. However, these two paintings were painted in the same town around the same time have completely different styles. Vermeer is known for his use of light and use of symbolism. In the "Woman holding a balance" he makes use of both of these techniques. Although the painting seems simple enough, when examined closely it proves to carry several meanings. De Hooch's painting seems to have more detail in it, but it doesn't have the second meaning.

Holland in the seventeenth century was an independent nation, with control over her own politics and religion. In a time where politics and religion went hand in hand it in no small wonder that the Protestant church had such a large influence over the country. Seventeenth century Dutch culture was 'governed' by Protestant morality. Cleanliness was next to godliness and Dutch cities were known for their spotless houses and streets. This obsession with cleanliness may have been related to patriotism to one's country. If one remained vigilant against germs and dirt, one was metaphorically also remaining villiagant against the unclean and heathen invaders on one's homeland .

The management of the household was the woman's job; this domestic role was proof of her power in society . It was also expected that the female with her weaker body was more suited to the home. Good Dutch women were also expected to be virtuous. The commonwealth, Dutch moralists seemed to insist, stood or fell by the virtue of their women . Jacob Cats encouraged aspiring brides to have the "spirit of Sarah, the virtue of Ruth and the humility of Abigail" . It is not surprising that many women failed to meet this ideal imposed by a male dominated society. This was not unlike any other European country of this time. However, with the importance placed on the family home by the Dutch Protestant church, this stereotype of the virtuous wife worked within Dutch culture with a particular intensity.

Most often in Dutch paintings of this era it is the mother, not the father, that is portrayed as the protectors of the household. Both Vermeer and De Hooch use women in their portrayals of domestic life. Vermeer is known for his extensive use of women models in his paintings. In the social context of the time it would have been more natural to view a woman, rather than a man, in a domestic setting. However, men were pictured in Genre paintings, most often in scenes of taverns or as soldiers. Vermeer often portrayed women looking away or down from the viewer. In the rare case that he painted a woman actually looking at the viewer she seems to look through, not at, the viewer . This reluctance of Vermeer's models to look out at the viewer may stem from the artist's wish to portray a virtuous woman, similar to ones found in 15-century portraits. In portraying a female both Vermeer and De Hooch are emphasizing the social values of the time. Not only are they reinforcing the importance of the household by portraying a clean and orderly home, they were also emphasizing the social norm of the time where the woman's place was in the home.

Women in seventeenth century Holland were observed by Joseph Shaw to be more moral and happier than English women were. He attributed this to the fact that women were better provided for by the laws in their country; "so that they are not forced to trust their wits, nor put on those pitiful shifts to jilt mankind and bubble their husband for money ". It is true that compared to other seventeenth century European countries women did enjoy a fair amount of freedom and legal right. Some widows were even allowed to inherit their late husband's estate .

Vermeer and De Hooch's styles of painting varied, as did their choice of subject matter. Vermeer is known for his use of light to emphasize a scene. He was also known for his use of symbolism to portray a subject.

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