Mohatma Gandhi_

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Mahatma Gandhi whose real name was Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, was born in 186 at Porbandar in the state of Gujarat in India. His father's name was Karamchand Gandhi and his mother's name was Putlibai. He was the youngest in the family of one sister and three brothers. Both his parents were deeply religious and frequently visited temples and took their meals only after daily prayers. In school Gandhi was a mediocre student who was quite an introvert. He was even afraid to talk to any student in the class as he thought that they would poke fun at him. However, he always upheld his honesty and truthfulness. He believed in respecting his elders and was always 'blind to the faults of the elders'. Gandhi was married in 188 at the age of thirteen to a girl named Kasturbai. He passed his matriculation exams in 1887 and then soon returned to Porbander as he found the studies of his college very tough. Then later on he went on to the University of London in England to pursue the study of law after a lot of opposition from his mother and some other people .He vowed not to touch woman, wine and meat. He passed the London matriculation exam in the second attempt. At last he sailed back to India in June, 181.later on, he went to Bombay to study Indian Laws. In spite of getting a case, he went to South Africa in April 18. Gandhi sailed for South Africa in April 18 and reached Natal at the close of May. It was in South Africa that Gandhi had a lot of experience in laws, handling cases and many other fields. He observed the pitiful conditions of the Indians and other colored people and also experienced it when on his way to Pretoria from Natal, he was thrown out of a train because he was the only colored person in the first class compartment. During this time Gandhi became deeply interested in religion. In spite of his Christian friends' tries of converting him to Christianity, he kept his faith. He helped the Indentured Indian laborers and fought for their rights. After three years in South Africa, Gandhi returned to India in 186. Gandhi had a lot of shortcomings in his personal life. He was a very suspicious husband and kept an eye on all the movements of his wife, Kasturbai. This resulted in bitter quarrels becoming the order of the day. But in his autobiography, Gandhi says that he did all this because he "wanted to make his wife an ideal wife and make her live a pure life." Some more of his shortcomings were that at a young age he had started smoking and eating meat in company of a cousin and a friend. He stole money from his servant's pocket and bought cigarettes. At last he gave up all the malpractices and became a strict vegetarian and stuck to it all his life. He educated his children and the child of his widow sister. He also became a very religious person and was greatly influenced by the "saintliness" of his mother. He practiced Ahimsa (non-violence), Brahmacharya (celibacy) and Aparigraha (non-possession). In his public life, Gandhi was very successful. When he went to South Africa, he came in contact with many people and went through many experiences. He protested against the color bar and helped all those who were neglected During the Boer War he participated with the British. He and some other people joined to form the Ambulance Corps who took care of the wounded fighters. Gandhi awakened a sense of duty to the Indians settled in South Africa, so that they sent money for the famine relief during the famines in India in 187 and 18. In 117, he got the Indentured Emigration from India, abolished. After returning to India, he set about reforming it. His campaign in India started from Champaran, a small place in the state of Bihar. There he fought for the rights of Indigo farmers. He upheld the principles of Swaraj (self rule), Swadeshi (self sufficiency) and Satyagraha (truth as a medium of protest). He instructed the people not to wear foreign clothes or use foreign goods. He told them to make their own clothes using handlooms and the cloth that they wore was known as Khadi. Even Gandhi made his own clothes by using a Charkha (spinning wheel), which became the symbol of prosperity and integrity of India. Gandhi created a number of Ashrams or communities where men, women and children from all backgrounds and nationalities came to learn from his daily example on how to make non-violence and love the basis of their lives. One of the ashrams was the Sabarmati Ashram in the state of Gujarat. He understood the problems of the untouchables who were thrown out of society. He called these people "Harijans" or "people of the lord". Wherever he went, he collected money for the Harijans. He traveled in the third class of the trains, which were dirty and meant for the low caste Indians. When someone asked him why, he simply said, "Because there is no fourth." Gandhi faced many challenges towards the end of his life. In 10, the British government levied tax on salt, which was the primary ingredient of every household's meal. Gandhi collected some followers and marched to a small, coastal town of Dandi, situated near the Arabian Sea, 40 miles away, where he proposed to produce salt from the sea water. Thousands of people joined the march on the way. This was known as the DANDI MARCH. Gandhi was arrested after this incident. But this did not hinder his courage. He started the NON- CO-OPERATION MOVEMENT. Nobody was to co-operate with the British, which would lead to their leaving India. On the 8th of August 14 the QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT started. This non-violent protest disrupted and destroyed the British Government and their system of governance and added nationalistic fire to every Indian's heart. On the eve of independence, Hindus and Muslims in India were in the throes of civil war. All the government forces were powerless to stop the massacres. The bloodshed and destruction touched the very depths of Gandhi. He went straight to the heart of the violence and walked barefoot through the remote, ravaged villages as a one-man force for peace. "He who trembles or takes to the heels, the moment he sees two people fighting, is not non-violent, but a coward. A non-violent person will lay down his life in preventing such quarrels" said Gandhi and he truly justified it. It was on the evening of 0th of January 148, that the final tragedy took place. Mahatma Gandhi was in Delhi, requesting for Hindu-Muslim unity. When the time for prayer meeting came, he walked briskly with his arms on the shoulder of two of the ashram girls. As he walked to the platform through the huge crowd, he held his palms together in front of him. Suddenly, a young man placed himself in Gandhi's path and fired a gun point-blank into his heart. Such was the greatness of Gandhi that as his body fell, he called out "Rama, Rama, Rama" which meant I forgive you, I love you, I bless you. The killer was later identified as Nathuram Godse, a Hindu fanatic. This 0th day of January, is known in India as the Martyr's Day.

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Primary Sources: An aid to comparing political views of the past

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In Sources of the Western Tradition, by Marvin Perry, Joseph R. Peden, and Theodore H. Von Laue, many primary sources are provided, giving the ideas of historical figures with conflicting views. For instance, the sources from Niccolo Machiavelli and James I provide insights into their contrasting views on political authority. These selections give historians critical information on how political systems differed in the past according to the time and ruler of the state.

When reading the sources, the opposing views of Niccolo Machiavelli and James I become very obvious. Niccolo Machiavelli was a prince who believed, contrary to Medieval times, that there was no divine origin to kingship. He disagreed that kings should adhere to Christian moral teachings (Perry, Peden, and Von Laue 1). Instead he proposed the state resulted from pure human creation. He thought princes should ignore morality and use religion only to unite their subjects and foster obedience to law (Perry, Peden, and Von Laue 1). James I, on the other hand, had completely opposite ideas. He believed in the divine right of monarchy; that monarchs were chosen by and responsible to God only (Perry, Peden, and Von Laue 0). He described the role of parliament as a group who could merrily advise the king of laws to be implemented, while knowing the king had the final word on all creation of laws. A king's relationship to God played a large role in the opposing views of Machiavelli and James I.

The two excerpts from these rulers convey the same type of message, although the way they are demonstrated varies greatly. In The Prince, Machiavelli thoroughly describes many characteristics a prince should have, even going to the extent as to which ones he should display and disguise. The excerpt from James I is quite different in style; it is a concise, direct message clearly stating the high standing of a king and the role of parliament. Machiavelli's and James I's selections are both from a book, but James I's also includes a speech. While Machiavelli agreeably advises and provides suggestions, James I forcefully states his views, enforcing the way the system is and will remain under his rule.

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The variance of style in which each message is relayed is a result of the individual purpose of each author. Machiavelli wrote to reveal his ideas to people capable of understanding, since they were new and contrary to public belief at the time. He wanted to address rulers and enforce his point that a successful ruler should not adhere to morality and religion (Perry, Peden, and Von Laue1). Overall, he wanted to propose a new way of political thinking in contrast to the medieval political theory. Perhaps he thought The Prince, his particular work in question, might influence future leaders. James the first wanted to enforce the current political theory already in place, and justify his position of power. He made this clear by instilling that kings were like Gods and held the utmost authority. They had power to make and break laws solely based on their opinion. He felt the need to enforce the place of the parliament and the common people; he told them they should avoid grievances and interfering with his ways. It was important for everyone to know that he had been in power for a long time, and it was inappropriate for people to question his authority. The authors' opinions, as well as the context they were situated in, give them unique purposes for writing their documents.

Historians can make inferences about the times of the authors based on the readings. Machiavelli notes that his opinions differ from most others, so it is clear he is writing in a time where most people do believe in the divine origin of kinship, such as in medieval times. Since James I refers to his many predecessors a historian would know the system of the divine right of kings had been in place for some time. Obviously Parliament had been established in his state since he addressed his speech to his subjects.

The content of each source provides particular uses and restrictions for a modern historians' analysis. Machiavelli's selection is very descriptive, making it useful in determining exactly what he envisioned a prince should be. This helps a historian know what qualities he believed were necessary for an effectively run state. It, again, instils the idea that Machiavelli did not believe the previous teachings that morality and responsibility to God were the keys to a successful prince. A historian learns with evidence as to why Machiavelli believed the medieval political theory was futile and why his theory was much more effective. A limiting factor for a historian could be that the passage does not go into detail about the origins of his thoughts. There is no explanation as to what inspired his rejection of divine origin to kinship and his new vision of politics. Since the passage is very short, it is difficult to fully understand the basis for Machiavelli's claims. Perhaps more examples of the failures and successes according to the prince's characteristics would help provide a clearer picture.

A historian might find the selection from James I to be very concise and informative, yet lacking in depth due to its length. It is effective in defining what he believes to be the role of Parliament and the power the head monarch has in a state. It gives the reader a clear vision of what James I believed of his place and conveys his expectations for his government and subjects. The passage relays his association of God to kings well, with its discussion of divine origin. Since the source includes a short excerpt from a book and a speech, there is minimal background information. A historian might like to know the events preceding the speech, for instance. They might wonder what provoked James I to feel the need to enforce his powerful position. It might be helpful to know the reactions of the people in Parliament and the common people after the speech he gave and after reading True Law. This source relates only the views of James I but not the issues leading up to and resulting from his words.

Many factors of a primary source determine the obtainable information for a historian's analysis. These could include the format, the purpose of the selection, and the depth of information. Primary sources allow historians to analyze the opposing views of historical figures; their qualities determine the potential for investigation.

Bibliography

Perry, Peden, and Von Laue. Sources of the Western Tradition. Boston Houghton Mifflin Company, 00.

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Historiographical exerciseThe Holocaust

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The issue being discussed in these two articles is when Hitler and the Nazi leadership made the decision to implement the systematic mass murder of the Soviet and European Jewish population. When was the plan for the "Final Solution" to the Jewish question formulated?

Christopher Browning argues in his article that the sequence of events and the documentary evidence suggest that Hitler did not harbor a "basic decision" or a "secret plan" for the deportation and extermination of Soviet and European Jewry.

Browning suggests that there were two decisions for implementation, one in mid July 141 for the mass killing of all Soviet Jews and the second in early October for the "Final Solution" to the Jewish problem in German occupied Europe. He suggests that both these decisions were made in the "euphoria of victory" in the east.

The first decision, to implement the systematic mass murder of the Soviet Jews is supported by logistical, chronological and statistical evidence. Logistically, the ,000 men of the Einsatzgruppen behind the rapidly advancing German army could not have carried out such mass killings. Reports received from the Einsatzgruppen in the first five weeks of the Barbarossa campaign indicate that the majority of victims were Jewish male leadership and intelligentsia, there is no mention of women and children being targeted. At a 16 July meeting with Goring, Lammers, Rosenberg and Keitel, Hitler spoke of Germany becoming a "Garden of Eden", convinced that victory was imminent, he gave a clear indication (Hitler never gave an explicit order) of what was to happen to the Soviet Jewry. Within a week Himmler had quadrupled the number of SS men operating behind the advancing German army. There was now enough manpower to initiate the mass killing of all Soviet Jewry, including women and children. By mid August, reports showed a sharp increase in the number of Jews being murdered, these included large numbers of women and children.

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It is Browning opinion that at the same time as the decision was made for the mass killings of Jews in the Soviet Union Hitler asked Himmler and Heydrich for a "feasibility study" for the extermination of the European Jewry. On 1 July Heydrich received authorization from Goring to prepare such a plan. In August Heydrich and Goebbels proposed to commence deportations from Germany, Hitler rejected this proposal. Hitler initially wanted to delay deportations until after the war. However, with the victories at Vyazma and Bryansk in early October, again in the euphoria of victory, his "last hesitations were overcome". The end of the war seemed very close and Hitler made the "irrevocable decision", construction of the extermination camps began and by mid October deportation of the European Jewry had started.

Richard Breitman's article argues that the idea that the Nazis turned to genocide as "a last resort" is "simply ludicrous". Breitman argues that along with Hitler's desire to destroy the Soviet Union, he had an equally longstanding goal of destroying Jewry and that Operation Barbarossa gave him the opportunity and the cover needed for the "liquidation of racial enemies in the East". The assignment of Einsatzgruppen and Order Police to the Barbarossa campaign demonstrates the intentions of Hitler, Himmler and other Nazi leaders to commit mass murder in the Soviet Union.

Breitman argues that it was Hitler's plan to rid Europe of Jews prior to the beginning of the war. In January 1 Hitler gave a speech in which he forecast the destruction of the Jewish race. The Nazis had begun to implement programs to eliminate the handicapped and the mentally ill and on a small scale the Jews as early as 1. It could be argued that "with regard to decision making, personnel and technique, the killing program for the handicapped served as a model for the Final Solution"

Hitler and the Fuhrer Chancellery became very adept at deception in order to keep from the German public the gassing of the handicapped, code names were given to officials who participated, death certificates were falsified and the trucks used for the gassings were disguised as coffee trucks. Wording of Nazi documents contained euphemisms, for example the gassing of mental patients was referred to as "evacuations". Hitler had caused trouble for himself by authorizing in writing the killings of the genetically deficient in October 1 and this could explain why there is no written authorization from him for the Final Solution.

Breitman suggests that plans for the Final Solution were well advanced by early 141. Evidence of this can be found from several sources. In early December 140 Himmler gave a speech in Berlin (hand written notes survived), he mentioned Jewish emigration in Poland in order to leave more space for the Poles, who were to be used as a labour source. Himmler made no mention of where the Jews were to go, this is relevant due to the fact that the RSHA had banned Jewish emigration six weeks earlier. He was clearly not referring to Viktor Brack's Madagascar Plan as this was not feasible at this time as the British fleet lay between the continent and Madagascar. Theodor Dannecker's disclosure "that the Fuhrer wanted a final solution of the Jewish question after the war in all parts of Europe ruled or controlled by Germany". Heydrich's January memo stating that Himmler had approved the establishment of categories within the concentration camp system with one category of prisoners to be sent to Auschwitz II , at the time there was only one camp at Auschwitz "Heydrich already knew that Himmler would soon order an expansion". Breitman suggests that these early references to the Final Solution "meant then what they meant in July 141".

I find Richard Breitman's article more persuasive than Christopher Browning's. The many early references to "Final Solution" show there were plans in hand much earlier than Browning's suggested date of July 141. As Breitman asks, why would this term mean something different prior to mid 141 than it did after? Browning's "euphoria of victory" theory may well have had something to do with the timing of the implementation of these plans, but the evidence seems stronger that the plans were already available.

Browning, Christopher R., "The Euphoria of Victory and the Final Solution Summer-Fall 141", German Studies Review, vol. xvii, no. , (Oct. 14), pp. 47 45.

Breitman, Richard, "Plans for the Final Solution in Early 141", German Studies Review, vol. xvii

Browning, Christopher R., "The Euphoria of Victory and the Final Solution Summer-Fall 141", German Studies Review, vol. xvii, no. , (Oct. 14), pp. 47 45.

Breitman, Richard, "Plans for the Final Solution in Early 141", German Studies Review, vol. xvii

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Telemachus

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Odyssey

The Odyssey, by Homer, is a classical piece of Greek literature. Throughout The Odyssey, Homer makes use of many literary techniques in order to give meaning to the poem beyond its significance as a work of historic fiction and help his readers in the comprehension of the story. One of these techniques is the use of motifs. In The Odyssey, perhaps the most important of Homers motifs is the symbolic death and rebirth theme. This motif is used throughout The Odyssey to emphasize the growth and maturation of the characters. The first example of this motif occurs with Telemachus early in the book. Telemachus, in book I, is visited by the goddess Athena in disguise. In their conversation, Telemachus reveals the pain and suffering that he is experiencing as a result of living without knowing the status of his father, fearing that he is dead. . . . and he left pain and lamentation to me. Nor is it for him alone that I grieve in my pain now (The Odyssey, Latimore, I. 4-). Symbolically, at this point in the text, Telemachus is dead. He is willing to take no action to save his home from the suitors or take any initiative to determine the status of his missing father. However, his symbolic death is not without a rebirth. Athena, disguised as Mentes, brings Telemachus back to life. She convinces him that he must take action to preserve the household and determine the fate of his father. This prompts Telemachus to take over his fathers role in the household and journey forward to gather information about his missing father. His rebirth is further carried out in the story when he is reunited with his father; together, the two act to regain control of their household from the suitors. The next example of the death and rebirth motif occurs with our introduction to the storys main character and hero, Odysseus. Homer introduces Odysseus on the Kalypsos island. Odysseuss stay with Kalypso would cause his demise as that was the fate of mortals who lived with goddesses. On a more symbolic level, Odysseus was dead to the world as Kalypso forbids him from leaving the island and forces him to do her bidding. Odysseus was reborn, however, at the hands of Hermes, who was a messenger for Zeus. Hermes tells Kalypso that Odysseus is to be freed so Odysseus builds a raft and sets out for home. This symbolic rebirth is emphasized by Odysseuss emergence from the ocean on the island of the Phaiakians. He is washed ashore with nothing--his raft is destroyed and he is completely naked. This naked emergence can also be seen as symbolic of birth. Another reference to this rebirth is found at the end of book V. As when a man buries a burning log in a black ash heap in a remote place in the country, where none live near as neighbors, and saves the seed of fire, having no other place to get a light from . . . (V. 488-1). The phrase seed of the fire is used by Homer specifically to make reference to the rebirth of Odysseus; the term seed clearly brings to mind reproductive and birth images that would not be associated with a less metaphorical reference. Another instance in which Homer makes use of the death and rebirth motif occurs with Odysseuss adventure with the cyclops Polyphemus. Odysseus and his men are trapped in the cave of Polyphemus, which symbolizes their death. This death is further emphasized when Odysseus refers to himself as Nobody. As Homer later recounts, those in the underworld are truly nobodies--they have no interaction with the living world and cannot even communicate. Odysseus is reborn through his own ingenuity and cleverness as he escaped Polyphemuss cave and announced to the cyclops his true identity, once again making himself born into the realm of mortals. The symbolic rebirth of Odysseus can be emphasized by the cave, which can be seen as a symbol of the womb, therefore making Odysseus emergence from the cyclopss cave a true rebirth. The next example of the death and rebirth motif is a rather obvious one that has little symbolic inference Odysseus descent into the underworld in book XI. Homer uses many light and dark references to emphasize the death and rebirth theme in this book-- darkness symbolizing death and light symbolizing life and therefore rebirth. While in the underworld, Odysseus gains insights about his eventual return home. With this knowledge, Odysseus and his crew return to the world of the living, symbolizing their rebirth. Again, light and dark images are used to emphasize this rebirth. . . .where Helios, the sun, makes his uprising . . . (XII. 4). As illustrated in the preceding line, Odysseus returns from the Underworld to the place where the sun rises-- the symbolism is obvious. The death and rebirth theme surfaces again in book XIII. Odysseus, after visiting the underworld, is returning home to Ithaca. During the long voyage, he is visited by Aretes serving women. The women bring Odysseus gifts and put him into a deep slumber, which Homer himself likens to death The bent to their rowing, and with oars tossed up the sea spray, and upon the eyes of Odysseus there fell a sleep, gentle, the sweetest kind of sleep with no awakening, most like death . . . (XIII. 78-81). Again, this death is not without a rebirth. The Phaiakians leave the sleeping. This theme is re-emphasized in this book because many of the citizens of Ithaca believe that Odysseus actually is dead; they will see his return from the underworld as a true rebirth. Penelope is Homers next vehicle to strengthen the death and rebirth motif. In book XVIII, Athena causes Penelope to undergo a deep sleep which Penelope associates with death. How I wish chaste Artemis would give me a death so soft . . . (XVIII. 0). While asleep, Athena enhances Penelopes looks in anticipation of Odysseuss return. Penelope awakens looking younger, taller, and more beautiful. After she awakens Penelope talks to her son and makes a definitive statement condemning the suitors; something she had never done before in public. Truly, this represents a rebirth and awakening in the character of Penelope. The final example of the death and rebirth theme in The Odyssey occurs in book XXIV when Odysseus is reunited with his father, Laertes. Laertes faints when he realizes that his son has returned. This fainting symbolizes his death. When he awakens, and is therefore reborn, he has a new love for life and no longer wishes for death to overtake him. This is a just a compact version of the death and rebirth theme at the end of the book. Overall, the death and rebirth theme makes a very important contribution to The Odyssey. Throughout the work, Homer makes use of this theme for several reasons. Primarily, it helps the reader gain better understanding into what is one of the more important underlying themes in the entire book one should never give up on living. Homer tells his tale and emphasizes that, even though a situation may seem insurmountable, there is always an option that, if taken, will not only sustain life but provide some valuable insight or experience. This theme of The Odyssey is a universal one, which truly helps to account for the timelessness example of Homers work.

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History

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Chapter

1) In the first place, people will willingly trade one recently arrived ruler for another, hoping that a new ruler will be better than the present one. This expectation of improvement will induce people to take up arms against any relatively unestablished prince. Although the people may quickly realize that their revolt is ineffective, they will still create great disorder. Furthermore, when a prince takes over another princes power, he finds himself in a tricky situation with regard to the people who put him in power. He cannot maintain the support of these people because he cannot fulfill all of their expectations that their situation will improve. But he also cannot deal too harshly with them because he is in their debt. Immediately after taking power, the prince is in danger of losing his newly gained principality.

A) It is much easier to maintain control over a new principality if the people share the same language and customs as the princes own country. If this is the case, the prince has to do only two things. First, he must destroy the family of the former prince. Second, he must not change the principalitys laws and taxes. People will live quietly and peacefully so long as their old ways of life are undisturbed.

B) New states that have different languages and customs from those of the prince are more difficult to maintain. One of the princes most effective options is to take up residence in the new state. By living there, the prince can address problems quickly and efficiently. He can prevent the local officials from plundering his territory. The subjects will be in close contact with the prince. Therefore, those who are inclined to be good will have more reason to show their allegiance to the prince and those who are inclined to be bad will have more reason to fear him. Invaders will think twice before attempting to take over the state. Another effective method of dealing with linguistic and cultural differences is to establish colonies in the new state. It is less expensive to establish colonies than to maintain military occupation, and colonialism only harms inhabitants who pose no threat to the prince because they are scattered and poor. As a general rule, men must be either pampered or crushed. A prince should injure people only if he knows there is no threat of revenge. Setting up military bases throughout the new state will not effectively keep order. Instead, it will upset the people, and these people may turn into hostile enemies capable of causing great harm to the princes regime.

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Chapter 4

1) In order to hold a state, a prince must understand statecraft and warcraft. The two are intertwined. War can be avoided by suppressing disorder. However, one can never escape a war war can only be postponed to the enemys advantage.

Chapter 5

1) Complete destruction is the most certain way of securing a state that has been free in the past. A prince who does not take this route places himself in a position to be destroyed himself. No matter how long it has been since the state was acquired, rebellions will always revive the legacy of ancient institutions and notions of former liberty, even if the state has benefited from the princes rule. This sense of tradition will unify the people against the prince.

Chapter 6

1A) One way that rulers acquire states is through their own prowess, meaning their own abilities rather than the good fortune of noble birth, inheritance, or lucky circumstances. Relying on ones personal prowess is a very difficult method of acquiring a state. However, a state acquired by a rulers natural skill will prove easier to maintain control over. Examples of rulers who triumphed on the strength of their own powers include Moses, Cyrus, Romulus, and Theseus.

Chapter 8

1) King Agathocles of Syracuse is an example of a man who rose to power through crime. Agathocles was a common citizen who joined the militia, rose to a leading rank in the army, and then assembled a meeting of the senate at which he ordered his men to kill all the senators and install him in power. Agathocles reign was characterized by constant difficulties and threats to his power. However, he withstood them and maintained his rule. Once in power, Agathocles proved as competent as any eminent commander, but the severity of the crimes he committed during his ascension preclude his being considered great. Cruelty, which is itself evil, can be used well if it is applied once at the outset, and then only employed in self-defense and ultimately used for the greater good of ones subjects. Regular and frequent perpetration of cruel actions earns a ruler infamy. If a prince comes to power by crime and wishes to be successful, he, like Agathocles, must only use cruelty in the first sense.

Chapter

) A prince placed in power by nobles will find it more difficult to maintain his position because those who surround him will consider themselves his equals and his selection as prince arbitrary. However, a prince created by the people stands alone at the top. Not only are nobles much harder to satisfy than the people, they are less honest in their motives because they seek to oppress the people. The people, on the other hand, only seek to be left alone. If the people are hostile to the prince, the worst that can happen is desertion. However, if the nobles are hostile, the prince can expect both desertion and active opposition. Nobles are astute and cunning and always safeguard their interests. Nobles will either become dependent on the prince or remain independent of his control. A prince should honor and love those nobles who have become dependent on him. Nobles who remain independent are either timid or ambitious. Timid nobles are benign, but a prince should be wary of ambitious nobles, since they will become enemies in times of adversity. A prince created by the people must retain the peoples friendship, a fairly easy task. A prince created by the nobles must still try to win over the peoples affection, because they can serve as protection from hostile nobles. Benevolence is the best way to maintain the mandate of the people. If people expect hostility from a prince but instead receive kindness and favors, they feel a great obligation to their prince.

Chapter 10

ß Although a prince should always aim to keep an army of equal size and strength as that of any aggressor, it is just as important to maintain defenses and fortifications. These defensive preparations not only provide security but also deter enemies from attacking.

ß Some might argue that if an enemy lays siege to a fortified city, the people inside, upon witnessing their countryside pillaged and possessions destroyed, will turn against their prince. But a prince who has made adequate defensive preparations can actually inspire his subjects during such times. To do so, he must convince the people that the hardships are only temporary and, more important, create feelings of patriotism and enthusiasm for the citys defense. This way, when the siege is over, the grateful and obliged people will love the prince all the more.

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Change Essay: Gwen Harwood & Related Texts

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Change is a process that is inevitable in all our lives; it is constant, unpredictable, physical, emotional and psychological. In the poetry of Gwen Harwood changing self is an important theme, though she focuses on different experiences of life in which change is emphasised. From the stimulus booklet the short story Sky-high by Hannah Robert uses a central symbol of the clothesline to represent the changes one experiences from childhood to adult. In the movie Pleasantville change is obvious through the film techniques that are used turning an innocent black and white world into an experienced technicolour world.

'In the Park' is a poem by Gwen Harwood that highlights the commitments women have compared to men. Gwen Harwood wrote her poetry in the 150's and 60's a time that women were still expected to stay at home and look after the kids and not really do much else. 'In the Park' is in a sonnet form divided into two quatrains and a sestet. Harwood uses the details of a simple scene to contemplate issues of love and despair, and impossibility of change. With the poem being in a sonnet form means that the poem is given a complete essence, and using this form is ironic compared to the subject matter. 'In the Park' may be seen as a philosophical reflection on the way our lives change from the prospect of hopefulness and joy to suffering and loneliness. Once that has occurred there may be no possibility of development in a person's life. The setting gives us an insight into the failing chances that the women has to change reference to the adjective 'flickering light', suggests this failing hope, the day declining into the darkness of night, when she returns home alone. Although she knows that her situation is dire she attempts a flawed justification of herself by commenting "It's so sweet to hear their chatter, watch them grow and thrive" with a direct contrast between the bitterness of her thought and the sweetness of her talk.

The movie 'Pleasantville' directed by Gary Ross and released rd October 18 is a modern fairytale, where an entire fictional town is granted a chance to experience the comedies and dangers of real life. Two 10's teenagers find themselves in the world of the sitcom 'Pleasantville' discovering that there is not a lot to the black-and-white paradise except a gleaming facade. The town undergoes an astonishing transformation turning from black-and-white to Technicolour. Through this process though there is much opposition to the changes, instead of showing the nice and relatively calm side of the human psyche we are shown the vindictive and destructive side of human existence, what is revealed is the importance of opposites and extremes in life. What is also explored in the morals, values and fantasies on an era gone by also the shortcomings of the 150's and the 10's are explored.

Reese Witherspoon plays the meddling Jennifer, in Pleasantville she realises that she doesn't have to base her identity on her sexuality and constant urge to conform, it shows people what the possibilities are. "It's fascinating to see how people who are seemingly very innocent and open are so easily corrupt, how easily they are changed by freedom. The blank books in the library are a metaphor for the entire film. It's like all these people with covers that are beautiful and well adorned, but there's nothing really on the inside " Witherspoon on Pleasantville. Colour is an important factor that is used in the production and presentation of Pleasantville, it rigorously and creatively uses colour to define two different worlds and to express the emotional shift inside the story's characters. As the film is in colour and in black-and-white the lighting was important as it had to be used so that both techniques were used to their maximum potential. The use of colour is as important as the cinematography, editing, sound effects and music. He costume design is also important in highlighting the change that is occurring in each of the characters, costume designer Judianna Makovsky paid close attention to the subtle shifts in each character's internal emotional state, constructing big, wide, dramatic skirts for Joan Allen's Betty Parker, then gradually tapered them as Betty discovers her sexuality, until she was donning slim, body-conscious pencil skirts. "The concept was that as these characters find themselves, everything abut them changes including their clothing, " explains Makovsky.

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The poem 'In the Park' and the movie 'Pleasantville' are similar as one is written in the middle of the 0th century whilst the other is set in the same time period. In 'Pleasantville' the character of Betty Parker (Joan Allen) is similar to the women in the poem 'In the Park' though Betty Parker goes from being the stay at home house wife to a character who is reformed and looking forward with anticipation to what the future holds.

The poem 'Prize-Giving' is the first in the Professor Eisenbart series that Harwood writes, it explores the tension between youth and age, masculinity and femininity, learning and artistry. Eisenbart is challenged by a young girls passion and there is a direct juxtaposition between youth and age, and the irony is set up so that he is the fool at the end after his pompous nonsense that he began with at the beginning of the poem. The images that Eisenbart conjures at the end of the poem are a metaphor for the changes that he has experienced ('upside down') and what is now going on inside his head caused by this epiphany.

Sky-High is a short-story by Hannah Robert in the first person narrative showing the effects of change on an individual through reflection and a time-shift as she relives a favourite activity of childhood. Realistic detail gives credibility. Opens with a patchy memory, and details return as if it was a long ago in her life the unsuccessful, suburban garden viewed from the ground giving prominence to the rotary clothes line standing 'proud' and 'festooned with socks and knickers like coloured flags' she wants to relive the past but too much has changed she is a mature women now and the exhilaration can only be a memory being mature means responsibility, more cautious and probably less physically able.

'Sky-high' and 'Prize Giving' are a short story and poem that explore change that is brought about by the memory of childhood or the innocence of childhood. 'Sky-High' is relevant to Gwen Harwood in its reference to change due to growing up and the limitations of becoming older.

In both the poems 'In the Park' and 'Prize-Giving,' the movie 'Pleasantville' and the short story 'Sky-High' change is evident and highlighted through the processes and results that take place under the term change.

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Gwen Harwood Selected Poems

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Society will never accept people who are different. Comment.

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In our culturally globalised world, we are increasingly exposed to different types of people from different walks of life. This makes some people feel that today's society can start to accept people who are different more readily than in the past. However, some critics may be less optimistic. They will point at that most of today's wars, conflicts and clashes still happen because differences still matter to a lot of people. They will also look back at mankind's terrible historical examples of society mistreating people who are different. For example, the murder of millions of Jews, gypsies, the disabled and homosexuals in the Holocaust by the German Nazi party. Today, society presents a mixed picture of growing tolerance as well as persisting prejudice.

Society generally shows great acceptance and sympathy for the physically disabled. Most developed nations' societies have progressed in supporting the rights and needs of such people with great success. Also, the rise of many physically disabled achievers, like Helen Keller and Stephen Hawking, has helped people see that the physically disabled can be just as capable as the physically able. People have accepted that the physically disabled should be treated normally and given fair opportunities in employment, education and basic well-being. Even profit-centred MNCs like Macdonalds have been employing the deaf and dumb as service staff. Governments have also shown more initiative in creating disabled friendly infrastructure. Most modern schools, office buildings, government buildings and transport systems today have lifts, ramps, special doors and facilities to accommodate their needs.

Those who are physically challenged in appearance may find it difficult to be accepted by society still. Such people may only be truly accepted only after they have tried to make themselves 'normal'. Modern society has become very materialistic and image-conscious because of the influence of advertising, consumerism and the media. A fixed idea of Beauty is being pushed by the media. The trim, young and beautiful tend to have more social, economic and political power because they are more accepted and admired. Researchers have shown that such people have higher chances of being employed. Obese and plain people have to spend extra effort and money on slimming down and beautifying themselves. Airline stewardesses for example are fired once they are seen as looking too old, fat or haggard. Those who were born with a freakish appearance, like conjoined twins or people with a cleft lip, feel pressured to go for expensive and sometimes life-threatening surgery because they hope to be accepted as normal. In fact, even relatively normal-looking people who just have slightly larger noses, bigger teeth or even single eyelids feel the need to undergo surgery to increase their chances of marriage, employment and friendship.

It is true that tolerance of people of different sexual orientation is increasingly practiced. However the more conservative and religiously fundamentalist still find it difficult to accept. Through the influence of the mass media and the politically active international gay rights movement, acceptance of homosexuals has been mainstreamed into society. So far, Scotland, Sweden, Holland and Canada have legalized homosexual marriages. International pop culture today features artistes like the lesbian Russian duo Tatu, gay Hong Kong actor/singer Leslie Cheung, bisexual American singer George Michael and transvestite American model/singer Rupaul. Such artistes are not only accepted by society, they are wildly popular and glamourised. Some critics even feel that homosexuality today is a great marketing tool to increase an artiste's popularity! On the other hand, the more traditional sections of society still feel strongly against such tolerance. To them, going against the idea of heterosexuality is immoral and against their core ethical or religious beliefs. The major religions in the world generally do not encourage homosexual behaviour. The most extreme version of such unacceptance can be seen in the violent American anti-gay movement. Matthew Shepard, a gay teenager, was murdered by his schoolmates. An infamous Christian extremist church even supported the murder by setting up a website called www.godhatesfags.com. Recently, even moderate, pragmatic societies like that in Singapore have been divided over the political rights of homosexuals.

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Thanks to cultural interpenetration, society has become more accepting of racial and ethnic diversity as well. Sadly, racial stereotypes still exist and cause problems. The growth of international travel, communications and migration have allowed different cultures to mix and get to know each other better. For example, modern America has come a long way from its roots of black slavery and racial segregation. Even though it is still white dominated, black people and other minority races have managed to find great success in politics, entertainment, sports and business. Politician Condoleeza Rice, golfer Tiger Woods, singer Jennifer Lopez and Olympic skater Michelle Kwan are such examples. However, racial stereotypes have existed for so long in America's history that prejudice still persists and is very difficult to get rid of. In the early 10s in Los Angeles, a black man, Rodney King, was beaten up by white policemen. This was enough to cause a full scale racial riot in Los Angeles between the whites and the blacks that led to lives and property being destroyed. Many people fear that the current wave of Anti-Semitism in Europe will lead to a revival of suppression of the Jews again. Thanks to rumours and conspiracy theories, the Jews have found it very difficult to overcome the stereotype of being mean, stingy and bloodthirsty.

In the end, it is too extreme and pessimistic to say society can never accept people who are different. There are many examples today that show differences have been gradually accepted. However, it looks impossible to think that there may be a day where differences can be completely accepted. Society has a long, terrible history of discrimination. Also, it will always have a wide variety of clashing beliefs, religions and ideologies. What we can hope is that the solution lies with encouraging more understanding. After all, stereotypes that lead to prejudice and discrimination are always built on inaccurate information about people. Society has found it most difficult to accept people when it knew nothing about them except for their differences. We need a responsible media and the spread of good education to remind us of our similarities.

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Nutrition

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Nutrition is the relationship of foods to the health of the human body. Proper nutrition means that you are receiving enough foods and supplements for the body to function at optimal capacity. It is important to remember that no single nutrient or activity can maintain optimal health and well being, although it has been proven that some nutrients are more important than others. All of the nutrients are necessary in different amounts in order to maintain proper health. There are six main types of nutrients used to maintain body health. They are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and most importantly water. They all must be balanced for the body to function properly. A good way to choose the right amount of your daily diet is to follow a food pyramid which contains the five major food groups; fats and oils, fruits and vegetables, dairy products, grains, and meats. Of course food alone isn't the key to a longer and healthier life. Good nutrition should be part of an overall healthy lifestyle, which also includes regular exercise, not smoking or drinking excessively, free of drugs, even stress management and limiting exposure to environmental hazards all connect to nutrition.

Nutrients are divided into five major groups; proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals. Each of these food components have a special function in the body, and all of them together are needed for overall health. The body uses energy to function and keep itself at a constant temperature. Scientists have been able to find out that the body gets its fuel from carbohydrates, fats, and protein. We will examine each food group separately and see how they relate to the overall health of our bodies mentally and physically.

Carbohydrate foods come from plants and are the main source of energy for all body functions. This makes sense, as carbohydrates contain the suns radiant energy, as captured in plant life. They are the best energy source we have and keep the digestive system fit and provide nutrients for the brain and nervous system. Carbohydrates are basically sugar and starch. Apples, oranges, potatoes, grains, candy, bread… are all carbohydrates. Carbohydrates break down into glucose molecules. When used as energy, carbohydrates become fuel for our muscles and brain. If your body does not have any use for the glucose, it is converted into glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles as an energy reserve. Crabs are divided in two categories Simple Carbohydrates; basically blood sugar or glucose, and Complex Carbohydrates; these are found in foods prepared with grains and vegetables. Research has proven that a daily diet high in carbohydrates is helpful. The right amount can decrease the risk of colon cancer and heart despises. The best sources for carbohydrates are grains, potatoes, vegetables, and fruits.

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Fats are probably the most popular from all the other food groups, it is also the most avoided and hated. It has been a common rumor for centuries that fat in the diet is bad, but what people don't know is that the body must need a small percentage of fat in order to function properly. Fat provides energy by giving calories to the body. They are the most concentrated source of energy in the diet and play an important role in building the membranes that surround our cells and in helping blood to clot. Once digested and absorbed, fats help the body absorb certain vitamins. The body also uses this stored fat in order to cushion vital organs and protect us from extreme cold and heat. Fats come from two kinds of food, plant foods (e.g. vegetables, grains and fruit) and animal foods (e.g. meat, poultry and dairy products). Fats contain more than twice as many calories per gram than do protein or carbohydrates. There are three kinds of fats saturated fats, monounsaturated fats, and polyunsaturated fats. Saturated fats help the body make cholesterol and are strong contributors to raising the blood cholesterol level. They are found primarily in animal foods, and some vegetable oils commonly used in food processing (palm and coconut oils). Monounsaturated fats are commonly found in olive and peanut oils, and may be helpful in lowering cholesterol. Polyunsaturated fats help to lower blood cholesterol levels. They are found in foods such as vegetables, fruit and grain. So the fact of consuming fat in our diet is not the problem it is our own choices of what kind and amount we eat. Best sources of fat are margarine, vegetable/plant oils, nuts, meats, cheese, and cream.

Proteins are essential to maintaining the structure and function of all life-the word itself is derived from the Greek word protos, meaning primary or first. Proteins are vital for the growth, repair, and maintenance of muscles, blood, internal organs, skin, hair, and nails. As a child grows, his muscles are built from proteins. A person with burns or open sores needs protein to heal these wounds. Proteins work by being broken down into smaller components called amino acids which are the building Blocks of the body. Besides building cells and repairing tissue, they form antibodies to combat invading bacteria & viruses; they are part of the enzyme & hormonal system; they build nucleoproteins (RNA & DNA); they carry oxygen throughout the body and participate in muscle activity. When carbohydrates, starches, or fats are unavailable, these acids are rebuilt so that protein can be used to supply energy. Most people think only of meat when considering protein sources, and meat is an excellent source of protein. Unfortunately, depending solely on meat is problematic. Eating too much meat may result in too many purines, which results in to uric acid that eventually turn into gout and kidney stones. Everyone needs some protein everyday. How much is needed depends on body size, rate of growth, and each persons healing requirements. The best sources of protein are eggs, milk, fish, meat, poultry, and nuts.

Vitamins and Minerals help our bodies use carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. In most cases, vitamins cannot be made by the body and must be taken from food. Vitamins are necessary for growth, healthy skin, teeth and eyes, and cell formation. They are also important in digestion, mental alertness, and resistance to bacterial infections. All natural vitamins are found only in living things, plants and animals. Good sources of vitamins are meat, fish, poultry, milk, fruit, breads, and cereals. There are 1 known vitamins, 4 fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E, and K. The water- soluble vitamins include vitamin C and the B-vitamin complex. A lot of people think vitamins can replace food. They cannot. If you eat a variety of nutritious foods, you shouldnt need vitamin supplements. Taking more nutrients than your body needs wont give you any more energy, but will prevent nutritional deficiency diseases. Minerals are also a major part of nutrition; they are nutrients that exist in the body in organic and inorganic combinations. Even though only about 4 to 5 percent of the body weight is mineral matter, minerals are important to overall mental and physical health.

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Joy Luck Club

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In the movie The Joy Luck Club the director Wayne Wang uses techniques to portray the film to make the themes and issues come across more appealing to the viewer. The three scenes that stood out are the ones where Lindo's mother is speaking to the matchmaker and mother in law about giving her daughter away to be married at the age of 15, the scene where Ying Ying is in Lena's apartment also known as the tiger scene and the last scene is Junes reunion with her abandoned twin sisters in China. These three scenes are all different in the way they are explored with different themes and issues by the way they are directed.

Lindo's family was poverty stricken, as daughters were seen as worthless her mother summoned the matchmaker to make a match for her daughter. As soon as Lindo enters the frame she is walking alone, showing her independence the camera follows Lindo with a panning shot. When Lindo enters the frame she is holding a red kite symbolising prosperity as well as the ability for freedom with no limitations. As Lindo walks in on the meeting her mother is having with the matchmaker and her future mother in law she steps up onto a rock, which creates a sense of power at the same time Lindo shows them that she wont be restricted once being married off. The long shot of the meeting shows no emotion, the way Wayne Wang has seated the three women is reminiscent of a battle as the mother in law and matchmaker are facing the mother as if the mother is unsure with her decision to give Lindo away, the door way in the background of the scene shows there is a new beginning once stepping inside the darkness of the room showing the unknown and mystery with the light showing a sense of direction. There is a medium shot of Lindo and she is fiddling with her kite but at the same time holding on tightly this represents her fear of being restricted of her prosperity and freedom as she throws the kite away in a later frame it shows her understanding of her arranged marriage by the matchmaker when doing this it shows her loss of opportunities as she knows she is trapped.

The tones that are projected from Lindo and her mother is fear of rejection, Lindo's mother is concerned with Lindo's acceptance by her future family for the reason that she is openhandedly given Lindo off to be married for a better opportunity at life, and being accepted into the house hold is a big ordeal to a mother as she has promised Lindo would be a good and obedient daughter in law. Lindo's concern for fear of rejection is somewhat different to that of her mothers because she wants to be accepted only because she has no other option and to be accepted is better than not being accepted at all. Whilst Lindo's mother is having slight regrets by her facial expressions during a close up of her face she would also be excited for Lindo as she is having the opportunity to live with a wealthy family.

In the scene where Ying Ying is in Lena's apartment the darkness of the shadows creates a sense of mystery, throughout the scene Ying Ying is talking bout the tiger, Wayne Wang has played with the shadows using the vertical blinds as a shadow on Ying Ying causing her to look like the tiger as she walks over to the bed with her hands grasped together showing she is harmless, whilst walking over to the bed she is accompanied by a panning shot. As Lena enters the room through the door, it is a mystery to the viewer at first, as you cannot see who is at the door but as Lena enters the room there is a sharp close up of her face showing concern for her mother as she is unaware of her mother distress for her marriage to Harold. The wooden pylons in the room symbolise the strength needing to hold up the house, this is like Lena and Harold's marriage it looks good from the outside but on the inside it doesn't appear the same, also the lopsidedness of the house is somewhat identical to Lena's marriage. Throughout the scene there is a lot of medium angle shot of Ying Ying with a lot of shadow positioned on her face and body to perhaps create a sense of mystery or a barrier.

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Throughout the scene music is being played sympathetically to the tone of the scene, which was anxiety and concern for Lena, as she doesn't want Lena's marriage to turn out as hers did. During the scene almost all of it consists of dark and dull scenes this adds to the final modification of the tone.

The final scene is where June goes to China for a reunion with her twin sisters that her mother Suyuan abandoned during the war in China when her babies were born. June never had a full understanding or acceptance of her mother's choice to leave the twins along the roadside. Lindo organised for June to go to China and meet the twins and inform them about the death of their mother. June goes to China by boat the first frame we observe in this scene is the sharp close up of swan feather followed by a slow panning shot going up toward June's face this shot shows the strong link between June and the swan feather. After panning up there is a sharp close up of June at eye level this frame is positioned there for a while to show June's excitement of meeting her twin sisters. As the boat docks into China there is a long shot of the boat showing the crowd and the different surroundings, as June walks off the boat she is accompanied by a low angle medium panning shot. When June looks for her sisters through the crowd she is lead by a dolly shot whilst the camera is proceeding with a dolly shot June is in a medium shot this shows her surrounding as well as her emotions. As June first sets sight of the twins she stands a reasonable distance away from the twins there is a long shot of the twins then followed by a close up of June's face showing her joyous experience with her first encounter with the twins. When June and the twins come together there is a high angled shot of the twins and June representing no emotions at this time. Whilst June tells the twins of their mother's death there is a sharp close up of her face showing sympathy and sorrow, the twins accept June with a hug this frame is shot through a high angled shot after they hug the camera slowly proceeds with tracking out in a slight upward direction.

The tone of this scene was somewhat different to the others as this one dealt with the justification of why Suyuan couldn't make it to China, June was afraid that her sisters wouldn't accept her she thought perhaps she may be rejected, it also deals with the anxiety June went through to preparing herself to tell the twins bout the death of her mother, it also is a joyous scene in that it is a happy event. Throughout the scene there is sympathetic music being played which gives the viewer an understanding it is a sad but joyous event.

In conclusion all three scenes explored different themes and issues but were all completed effectively. Without Wayne Wang's techniques the film may have been a lot different since the film techniques gave the film its appealing characteristics. The different camera shots, angles, movements and focuses made the film a lot more satisfying for the viewer.

Please note that this sample paper on Joy Luck Club is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Joy Luck Club, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Joy Luck Club will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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HEAT VAPORIZATION OF WATER

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Lab # 5

Lab Title-Heat of Vaporization of Water Using the Boiling Point Method

Lab Partners- Matt Yates, Melissa Sanford and Elizabeth Natchwey

Lab Text The Elements of Physical Chemistry With Applications in Biology, by Atkins

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rd Edition, Freeman, 00.

Survey of Physical Chemistry Lab Manual

Date Performed 10/11/0

Submission Date 11/8/0

I. Abstract

The vapor pressure of a liquid is the measure of the ability of molecules to escape from the surface of a solid or liquid. The intermolecular forces holding the molecule together are broken when the temperature is raised, due to the kinetic energy of the molecules. As more molecules build up in the space above the solid or liquid, more of them collide with the surface and some may adhere. At a fixed temperature the system will reach a state of dynamic equilibrium. At this point the pressure exerted by the molecules in the space above the solid or liquid, by definition, is the vapor pressure of the solid or liquid. When external pressure is exerted on the liquid, the vapor pressure also increases because the molecules are compressed, which also increases their energy.

II. Introduction

To determine the heat of vaporization we used a common method. Various external applied pressures are applied to the liquid while heating and the point at which the liquid boils is recorded.

The formula for the equilibrium between a pure liquid and its vapor is equation #1

X(l) X(g) (P, T) (eq. 1)

There is a definite relationship that exists between the pressure and the temperature at equilibrium. This relationship is equation #

dPdT = (eq. )

In equation # dP and dT are referring to an infinite number of changes for both pressure and temperature in a system at equilibrium with pure substances and both phases always present. ÄS and ÄV are referring to the entropy change and the volume when a phase transforms into another at both constant pressure and temperature. Since ÄG is 0 for a change in state the ÄS term in the equation can be replaced using and the resulting equation will produce equation #

dPdT = (eq. )

The Claperon equation is an exact expression that can be applied to many different phase equilibria. Equations and are known as the Claperon equation. When a Vaporization occurs there is a change in volume that is standard. ÄVvap (which is also Vg-V1) is about Vg. If Vg is substituted for ÄV equation #4 is the result

dpdT = (eq. 4)

Calculus says that dlnp = and that , after algebra and manipulation equation #4 can be turned magically into equation #5

= - (eq. 5)

If the compressibility factor of the gas is introduced as Z produces equation #6

Z = (eq. 6)

When equation #5 is multiplied by R/R most of the variable can be substituted with Z. When this happens a new convenient form of the Claperon equation is the result equation #7

= - (eq. 7)

Equation #7 can be rearranged to produce equation #8 and then it can be integrated to produce the Clausius Claperon equation, equation #

(eq. 8)

(eq. )

III. Experimental Methods

Equipment Needed (Typical Boiling Point Apparatus)

5 Liter Ballast Bulb Thermometer Adapter

Closed Tube Manometer Reflux Condenser

Double Neck Distillation Flask Bent Glass Tube with Adapter

Thermometers Electric Heating Mantle

Variac Long Pieces of Rubber Tubing

Rubber Pressure Tubing Long Pieces of Heavy Wall

Utility Clamps or Clamp Holders

Iron Ring Boiling Chips

The apparatus should be assembled to resemble Figure #1. Be sure to support all glass ware with clams at critical points. The double neck flask should be about one-third full of distilled de-ionized water. Add one or two boiling chips to the water. Stopcock X and stopcock S are not to be opened at the same time. Heat the water until vapor begins to condense on a drip from the thermometer bulb. Open the stopcock X and watch the manometer until both the mercury levels in the manometer and the thermometer are steady. Record the two readings. Record the ambient air temperature at the manometer every time you record both the boiling point and the vapor pressure. To take another reading close stopcock X and lower the heating mantle. Allow the flask to cool enough to stop the boiling and introduce new air into the system by opening stopcock S. Close stopcock S. Repeat the procedure until you have readings for the following pressures Decending 560, 450, 40, 40, 160, 10, and 0 Torr. Ascending 110, 10, 140, 180, 60, 60, 470, and 580 Torr. Record all data and proceed to calculations.

IV. Results and Observations

Chart #1

P (mmHg) CP (mmHg) T (°C) T (K) Height #1 (cm) Height # (cm) AAT (°C) 1/T lnP

66 6.568 4.7 67.85 71.0 8.0 4.0 0.007184 6.4501

560 557.5808 . 65.45 68.55 11.10 4.0 0.00765 6.607

450 448.056 86 5.15 6.55 17.5 4.0 0.007845 6.10418

40 8.51 7.55 5.7 57.77 .50 4.0 0.008571 5.84616

40 8.51 70.45 4.6 5.0 7.5 4.0 0.001061 5.47610

160 15.088 6.5 5.5 48.50 1.65 4.0 0.008066 5.070844

10 1.484 57.4 0.55 46.75 .40 4.0 0.000561 4.8605

0 8.611 50.4 .55 44.85 5.0 4.0 0.000071 4.4548

110 10.548 5.7 6.85 45.65 4.45 4.0 0.0005507 4.66151

10 11.4816 55.4 8.55 46.10 4.00 4.0 0.0004677 4.7816

140 1.5 58.8 1.5 47.0 .0 4.0 0.000150 4.71

180 17.4 66.5 .5 50.15 .5 4.0 0.0045508 5.18867

60 58.8768 7.5 45.5 5.10 7.00 4.0 0.008456 5.5565

60 58.4448 80.55 5.7 58.0 1.70 4.0 0.008755 5.881775

470 467.66 85. 5.05 6.55 17.5 4.0 0.0078517 6.14840

580 577.444 .6 65.75 68.85 10.70 4.0 0.0074108 6.586

Graph #1

V. Discussion and Conclusion

VI. References

The Elements of Physical Chemistry With Applications in Biology, by Atkins

rd Edition, Freeman, 00.

Survey of Physical Chemistry Lab Manual

VII. Appendices

Definitions from The Elements of Physical Chemistry With Applications in Biology, by Atkins

Vapor Pressure-The pressure of the vapor in equilibrium with its condensed phase is called the vapor pressure of the substance.

Critical Temperature-The temperature at which the surface disappears is the critical temperature.

Critical Pressure-The vapor pressure at the critical temperature is called the critical pressure.

Critical Point-The critical temperature and the critical pressure together determine the critical point.

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The world

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What is politics? I think the best shorthand definition of politics that anybody's ever proposed is Aristotle's. And Aristotle said politics is free persons deliberating the question how ought we to order our life together. Free persons deliberating the question how ought we to order our life together. And the ought of that definition is clearly a moral term.

Every political question of consequence is a moral question. What is fair? What is just? What serves the common good? Fairness, justice, good these are all moral terms. We are the ones who are prepared to enter into the dialogue, if you will the ongoing conversation, within the bounds of civility, as to how we ought to order our life together, including the question who belongs to the wethe most elementary of all political questions. Who belongs to the we? Who is entitled to our respect? Who is entitled to protection?

This conversation, this argument, in unwarlike ways, in civil ways, in persuasive ways, will prevail incrementally, piece by piece, sometimes moving, it seems, more backward than forward. But we're accustomed to that; we should be. We know that we've signed on for the duration, we know that the conflict between the culture of life and the culture of death is nothing less than the story of humankind. Humankind trying to find a better way, a more just way, a more humane way of ordering our life together, and of protecting all those who belong to the we.

What is politics? I think the best shorthand definition of politics that anybody's ever proposed is Aristotle's. And Aristotle said politics is free persons deliberating the question how ought we to order our life together. Free persons deliberating the question how ought we to order our life together. And the ought of that definition is clearly a moral term.

Cheap Custom Essays on the world

Every political question of consequence is a moral question. What is fair? What is just? What serves the common good? Fairness, justice, good these are all moral terms. We are the ones who are prepared to enter into the dialogue, if you will the ongoing conversation, within the bounds of civility, as to how we ought to order our life together, including the question who belongs to the wethe most elementary of all political questions. Who belongs to the we? Who is entitled to our respect? Who is entitled to protection?

This conversation, this argument, in unwarlike ways, in civil ways, in persuasive ways, will prevail incrementally, piece by piece, sometimes moving, it seems, more backward than forward. But we're accustomed to that; we should be. We know that we've signed on for the duration, we know that the conflict between the culture of life and the culture of death is nothing less than the story of humankind. Humankind trying to find a better way, a more just way, a more humane way of ordering our life together, and of protecting all those who belong to the we.

What is politics? I think the best shorthand definition of politics that anybody's ever proposed is Aristotle's. And Aristotle said politics is free persons deliberating the question how ought we to order our life together. Free persons deliberating the question how ought we to order our life together. And the ought of that definition is clearly a moral term.

Every political question of consequence is a moral question. What is fair? What is just? What serves the common good? Fairness, justice, good these are all moral terms. We are the ones who are prepared to enter into the dialogue, if you will the ongoing conversation, within the bounds of civility, as to how we ought to order our life together, including the question who belongs to the wethe most elementary of all political questions. Who belongs to the we? Who is entitled to our respect? Who is entitled to protection?

This conversation, this argument, in unwarlike ways, in civil ways, in persuasive ways, will prevail incrementally, piece by piece, sometimes moving, it seems, more backward than forward. But we're accustomed to that; we should be. We know that we've signed on for the duration, we know that the conflict between the culture of life and the culture of death is nothing less than the story of humankind. Humankind trying to find a better way, a more just way, a more humane way of ordering our life together, and of protecting all those who belong to the we.What is politics? I think the best shorthand definition of politics that anybody's ever proposed is Aristotle's. And Aristotle said politics is free persons deliberating the question how ought we to order our life together. Free persons deliberating the question how ought we to order our life together. And the ought of that definition is clearly a moral term.

Every political question of consequence is a moral question. What is fair? What is just? What serves the common good? Fairness, justice, good these are all moral terms. We are the ones who are prepared to enter into the dialogue, if you will the ongoing conversation, within the bounds of civility, as to how we ought to order our life together, including the question who belongs to the wethe most elementary of all political questions. Who belongs to the we? Who is entitled to our respect? Who is entitled to protection?

This conversation, this argument, in unwarlike ways, in civil ways, in persuasive ways, will prevail incrementally, piece by piece, sometimes moving, it seems, more backward than forward. But we're accustomed to that; we should be. We know that we've signed on for the duration, we know that the conflict between the culture of life and the culture of death is nothing less than the story of humankind. Humankind trying to find a better way, a more just way, a more humane way of ordering our life together, and of protecting all those who belong to the we.

What is politics? I think the best shorthand definition of politics that anybody's ever proposed is Aristotle's. And Aristotle said politics is free persons deliberating the question how ought we to order our life together. Free persons deliberating the question how ought we to order our life together. And the ought of that definition is clearly a moral term.

Every political question of consequence is a moral question. What is fair? What is just? What serves the common good? Fairness, justice, good these are all moral terms. We are the ones who are prepared to enter into the dialogue, if you will the ongoing conversation, within the bounds of civility, as to how we ought to order our life together, including the question who belongs to the wethe most elementary of all political questions. Who belongs to the we? Who is entitled to our respect? Who is entitled to protection?

This conversation, this argument, in unwarlike ways, in civil ways, in persuasive ways, will prevail incrementally, piece by piece, sometimes moving, it seems, more backward than forward. But we're accustomed to that; we should be. We know that we've signed on for the duration, we know that the conflict between the culture of life and the culture of death is nothing less than the story of humankind. Humankind trying to find a better way, a more just way, a more humane way of ordering our life together, and of protecting all those who belong to the we.

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Cloning Under Australain Law

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Introduction

Cloning is not very popular subject throughout the world. Most people don’t like the idea of cloning because it is playing god. On the hand cloning is a great idea if it is used correctly in giving the ability to infertile parents to finally have a child, it’s fine. But that is not all it is used for, and what does the law think about the idea, what does society think of it, and most of all what is it.

Statement of Findings

What Is Cloning?

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Cloning is the production of a group of generally identical cells or organisms, all descended from a single individual. The member of a clone have precisely the same Characteristics, except where mutilation and environmentally caused development variation has occurred. There are three different types of cloning. Embryo Cloning is a medical technique, which produces identical twins or triplets. It edits the process that nature uses to produce twins or triplets. One or more cells are removed from a fertilized embryo and encouraged to develop into one or more duplicate embryos. Twins or triplets are thus formed, with identical DNA. Reproductive Cloning uses the technique, which is intended to produce a duplicate of an existing animal. It has been used to clone a sheep and other mammals. The DNA from an ovum is removed and replaced with the DNA from a cell removed from an adult animal. Then, the fertilized ovum now called a pre-embryo, is implanted in a womb and allowed to develop into a new animal and finally

Biomedical cloning is a procedure whose initial stages are identical to adult DNA cloning. However, the stem cells are removed from the pre-embryo with the intent of producing tissue or a whole organ for transplant back into the person who supplied the DNA. The pre-embryo dies in the process. The goal of therapeutic cloning is to produce a healthy copy of a sick persons tissue or organ for transplant.

What Controversy?

There is plenty of controversy with cloning as with other aspects of genetic engineering that involves human beings, great concern has been voiced over the potential for human cloning. The possibility that the technology required for human cloning will be perfected in the foreseeable future is quite possible, Although there are protective restrictions on all government-sponsored research in this field. Some of the reasons why people think cloning is a bad idea are that the clone would not be a real human, but a clone would have exactly the same status that an identical twin already does. Both are derived from a single fertilized ovum. Some say cloning is playing God”. But cloning creates life from life, and is just an extension of routine in vitro fertilization procedures. These are just some of the reasons why most people disagree with cloning.

Why Clone Humans?

There are plenty of reasons for cloning, some of the more main reasons include. A cure for infertility where cloning has the potential to change the world for infertile couples almost overnight. It would put a hold on bad parents because human gives you the opportunity to participate in choosing the parents for your clone. You could become a better parent as human cloning can improve the parent-child relationship. Raising the child would be like having a child with an instruction manual, which means you would have a head start on your child’s talents. Human cloning technology is expected to result in several miraculous medical breakthroughs. We would be able to cure cancer is cloning leads to a better understanding of cell differentiation. Theories exist about how cloning may lead to a cure for heart attacks, a revolution in cosmetic surgery, organ or organs transplants. All of these breakthroughs in cloning technology will save thousands of lives.

Why Clone Nature?

Endangered Species would be saved as in the research leading up to human cloning. Scientists will perfect the technology to clone animals and thus the world would forever preserve endangered species, including humans. Animals and plants could be cloned for medical purposes.

What Does the Law Say?

The law covers scientists practicing cloning quite well in the ‘ Human Cloning And Other Prohibited Practices Act 00 ’ where it is illegal to collect viable human embryo from the body of a woman. As well as using precursor cells from a human embryo or a human fetus to create a human embryo, or developing such an embryo, along with. Developing a human embryo outside the body of a woman for more than 14 days and creating or developing a human embryo containing genetic material provided by more than persons. And that’s not all. Most of these offences ensure a maximum penalty of 10 years imprisonment. A case study could not be found.

A Survey was constructed on the subject of cloning. And 0 members of the public were asked a variety of six questions. The questions were

1. Do you like the idea of cloning?

. Do you think cloning animals to prevent animal extinction should be allowed?

. Are you aware of the laws which cover cloning?

4. Do you think human organs should be cloned, for use in organ transplants?

5. Do you agree with the idea of having an instruction manual for your child?

6. Do you think infertile couples should have access to this type of technology?

7. If you had the chance would you clone yourself?

In response to Question 1 â€" Over 0% of people sad that they did not agree with cloning, some of the reasons were ‘playing god‘, ‘not natural’.

In response to Question â€" About 60% of people agreed that cloning animals to prevent extinction should be practiced. The main reasons were ‘to prevent extinction’.

In response to Question â€" Almost All (around 8%) of people were not sure on the laws associated with cloning mainly because it wasn’t important.

In response to Question 4 â€" Around 60% said that they shouldn’t be as in the end it will result in cloning of humans.

In response to Question 5 â€" All of the 5 peopled asked replied with a quick, ‘No’ and claimed that it was a stupid idea.

In response to Question 6 â€" A large percentage (around 80%) said that this sort of procedure should be accessible to those sorts of couples.

In response to Question 7 â€" About 0% of people said that they wouldn’t clone themselves and the other 0% had a joke and said that the clone could work for them.

Conclusion

Although millions of people through the world, disagree with cloning and any sort of genetic engineering. The time will come in the future when scientists will experiment more and more to create fake life in the world. They start with small animals, then bigger animals then our closest relative the monkey. Then the rumors of a cloned baby won’t be rumors anymore, but your neighbor’s kid.

Bibliography

www.riverdeep.net/current/001/1/1001t_cloning.jhtml

www.austlii.edu.au

www.legislation.qld.gov.au

www.biotechinfo.ie/content/content.asp?section_id=0

www.cnn.com/HEALTH/706/5/nfm.cloning

Please note that this sample paper on Cloning Under Australain Law is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Cloning Under Australain Law, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Cloning Under Australain Law will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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