Q: Discuss the assertion that the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 was an attempt to deal with pauperism rather than poverty.

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Poverty has always been in existence in Britain, but because of social and economic changes in society during the late 18th and early 1th Centuries, the number of poor people rose dramatically. Poverty means having too little for a comfortable life, which was the situation for many people. Pauperism however meant being destitute, meaning so poor that you could not survive without help and that you were too poor to feed yourself or your family.

The Poor Law system was set up in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. It was legislated to help the poor people not to end up as paupers. Poverty had been largely due to an undeveloped economy in which famine and pestilence became recurring phenomena. A system of relief was needed in order to assist the poor. The parish became the primary unit in providing relief. The poor individuals residing within the parish boundaries could only receive this relief. This put tremendous pressure on parishes to give paupers the adequate amount of relief. As a result many parishes became overrun with too many poor people, and not enough assistance was administrated. For these reasons the problem of aiding the poor became regarded as the first English poor law. The old poor law had shown that poor relief confined to town parishes put too heavy a burden on them and as a result distribution of aid rather than alleviation of aid had been allotted in relieving the poor.

By 175 the Poor Law system was already facing problems, as the population increased so did the need for funding, housing and educating the poor. Changes bought about from farming and industry changes; poor harvest and unemployment increased the amount of people claiming poor relief. Many new schemes were introduced to cope with this problem. A system was set up in a town called Speenhamland where the poor received an allowance. The amount of relief a pauper received depended upon the size of his family and the cost of bread. Bread was the staple diet of the poor and as food prices began rising at a rate more than the average wage, the numbers of paupers claiming increased. This Speenhamland system was adopted throughout most agricultural areas of Southern England and the Midlands. Unfortunately as the population increased it became increasingly difficult and expensive for parishes who found it very hard to control how much they had to spend. Between 17 &175 a succession of poor harvests put wheat in very short supply, making bread very expensive. Wheat, which was 4s. d per quarter was 78s.7d by 175. (Taylor, D, 188 p.40). The old poor law of 1601 could not assign a good method of relieving pauperism in England.

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Attitudes began to harden towards the poor and Thomas Malthus a Utilitarian published an essay in 178 on why the Poor Law should be abolished, he was critical of the allowance system which he argued 'Encouraged early marriages and large families'. Malthus wrote ' A labourer should not get married until he had enough money to support a family. (Taylor,D,188 p4). This encouraged low wages because farmers knew that the workers were getting poor relief and would pay workers less wages. It also encouraged laziness, there was no need to go out and work so hard when they were receiving an allowance anyway. Ratepayers and church ministers criticized this as it was costing them, which was the biggest concern.

Conditions deteriorated in the workhouses as described in the Norwich Mercury in 18, 'The workhouse was a scene of filth, misery and indecency…imagine 600 persons badly looked after crowded into rooms seldom or never ventilated, swarming with vermin'. There were many reasons for reform and by 180 the whole Speenhamland system was unacceptable. People started to object to their conditions of work. Pauper's felt that they were being demoralized after doing full weeks work and still having to rely on poor relief.

In 18 a Royal Commission was set up to investigate the Poor Law. They were set up by the ideas from Jeremy Bentham, a Utilitarian. His ideas influenced many people. He believed 'All actions and laws could be judged against his Principle of Utility'. This principle would show if an action or law had 'Utility' or was useful in 'Bringing about happiness of the greatest number of people' (Martin,D 000 P56). This led to the Government to alter the Poor Law system.

However not everybody took the same view, as Bentham and 'Laissez-faire' was the name for the ideas of those who believed no action should be addressed at all by the government. Mr Isaac Willis a collector of the poor rates in the parish of St. Mary said ' Those who depend upon parish relief are dirty in their person and slothful in their ways' (Tonge,T 1 p40). Self-help was the root of all genuine growth in the individual and that no laws could make the idle work. The commission was headed by Economist Nassau & Senior and had twenty-six commissioners, the most prominent being Edwin Chadwick. It investigated whether reform was required by visiting parishes and by setting a questionnaire. The questionnaire proved unsuccessful because only 10% were returned covering only 0% of the population. The questions were poorly phrased which in turn produced misleading data. Chadwick's report was that the Poor Law looked costly, clumsy and was very wasteful. It also showed that pauperism was causing growing illegitimacy, low nutrition was causing early aging and sickness. The report also recommended that there should be only one poor relief for the whole country.

As a result in 184 the government passed the Poor Law Amendment Act and Chadwick became Secretary to the Poor Law Commission. Parishes were grouped into unions and by 188 there were 57 unions. In each union everybody who paid a poor rate elected a Board of Guardians, They were responsible for running the Poor Law in their union. Unions had to either build workhouses or adapt an existing one in which paupers would live. All families had to be separated from one another, women, men and children were all put in separate dormitories. They were made to live under strict conditions. The intention was to make it such an unpleasant place that it would only be entered as a last resort. 'Principle of less Eligibility' meant that working conditions inside the workhouses were worse than the conditions on the outside. The daily diet was intended to keep people alive but was deliberately kept uninteresting, beds resembled coffins and 'It was a true test between real pauperism and mere poverty, (Shuter.P 18 p144). Paupers were then given a uniform to wear with the letter 'P' for pauper on the back followed by the letter of the Parish. It was seen as a triumph that by making conditions worse in the workhouse a pauper would think twice about entering and if they did enter then they would have to pay the price, which was the cruel conditions. Punishing the paupers for their mistakes was seen as an incentive to get them back on their feet quicker. A report kept in a book that recorded punishments said ' Twenty nine women at the mill, neglecting and refusing to work, dinner and supper and milk stopped' (Shuter, D 18 p144).

The Poor Law Amendment Act 184 eventually led to immediate and visible economies, from an average of £6.75 million pounds per year in 180-4, the cost went down to £4.5 millions for 185-. This was mainly due to the poor fearing the workhouses. There were those who opposed the new law, workhouses were labelled as 'Bastilles' after a notorious French prison stormed during the revolution. The Times newspaper 'A champion of Laissez-faire' did not like the central administrators, they repeatedly printed articles condemning the Poor Law and the Commissioners.

Furthermore political riots broke out in the North of England, unemployment in the growing industrial cities tended to be short term therefore recipients of poor relief required only temporary help, further more to criticize workers as able bodied idle added insult to injury. The Poor Law did reduce the cost of poor relief in many areas but did not produce 'well regulated workhouses'. In the Andover scandal many paupers were starving and some were seen to be eating the bits of meat left on the bones that they made to crush in the workhouses, this was very bad for their health. Furthermore the cornerstone of the workhouse and of the outdoor relief was widely ignored and in 1847 the Poor Law Board replaced the Commission. (Martin, D 000 p 68).

Despite this The Poor Law Amendment Act was an attempt to deal with pauperism that just did not have the effect hoped by all. It was impossible to enforce the 'Principle of Eligibility' there was not enough space in workhouses to accommodate labourers who applied for the relief during the trade depression. The Poor Law Commission adopted a severe attitude to the poor assuming that all poverty wascaused by laziness. The real causes to the problem were overlooked such as population overgrowth and industrial changes.

Culpin, C (187) Making Modern Britain; Collins Educational

Martin, D (000) Britain 1815-1851 London; John Murray.

Mason, S (188) Work Out Social & Economic History London; Macmillan Education

Shuter, P & Child, J (18) The Changing Face of Britain; Heinneman Eduactional

Taylor, D (188) Mastering Economic and Social History Macmillan

Tonge, N (1) Industrialisation & Society 1700-114 Surrey; Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd.

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Choice of Major

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As I approached my senior year, I knew I would be faced with the realization of college and the undeniable process of choosing a job profession to ultimately study. Deciding on how I want my life to turn out to be, I thought, wouldn't be that difficult; however, reality has set in. So, as I ponder through the empty space of ideas, I run into my child hood dream of becoming an astronaut. Unfortunately, it has been slowly erased. Now, I'm opening my eyes to obvious aspects of my life, which presumably could lead me to a smarter career choice. With a condition such as type I diabetes, a job profession other than within the medical field seems illogical. There is no reason to pursue a career in which health issues are strictly prohibited, so instead, I have decided that it would be in my best interest to have a career in which I could only benefit from. A career that will not only meet my educational goals, but also will be suitable for my lifestyle is a job profession as a nurse practitioner.

A nurse practitioner has some of the utmost authority in the medical field as well as the ability of helping someone become well. I would feel privileged to be able to have an effect on someone who is in dire need of help. Doctors receive respect from all across the world as nurse practitioners can do the same. They are the next best thing to a doctor. In addition, not only can nurse practitioners make significant differences on an individual, if I became one, I could also make a huge difference in my own life. I'll have the advanced education concerning diabetes and hopefully learn even more on how to control my disease. News of upcoming technology and advancements will finally be at my fingertips! And finally, I believe I will feel sane with the actuality of doctors and health professionals being present if or when unexpected emergencies occur while I am on duty.

Deciding on what to major to eventually become is the simple part. Unfortunately, the rest is all books and studying. However, I know once I enter college, I'll have to set goals for me to achieve with strict guidelines for me to follow. My educational goals during college will without a doubt be to make A's and hopefully graduate with honors. Hard work and perseverance will help me accomplish this reachable goal. I personally know I can do it and want to show the rest of the world I can as well.

Several people now days often announce how "there's a big need for nurses." I think of it as I'm in need to become one. Most students are choosing their major based on their interest level, so I'll do the same and furthermore, make the selective choice that will ultimately take me farther in life. I want to major in nursing. I want to someday become a nurse practitioner.

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Conflict Management Styles

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Conflict is part of our everyday lives. We must all deal with some sort of conflict. "Conflict occurs whenever disagreements exist in a social situation over issues of substance or whenever antagonisms create frictions between individuals or groups." (Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, 17) Our textbook Organizational Behavior describes two types of conflict, the first type of conflict is substantive conflict which involves fundamental disagreement over ends or goals to be pursued and the means for their accomplishment, and the second type of conflict is emotional conflict which involves interpersonal difficulties that arise over feelings of anger, mistrust, dislike, fear, and resentment. (Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, 17) There are also different levels of conflict and they are intrapersonal conflict, interpersonal conflict, intergroup conflict, and interorganizational conflict.

How we deal with conflict depends on our conflict management style. Each of us has our own conflict management style that we feel comfortable using. There are five conflict management styles and they are competing which means that we are putting our own interests before anyone else's interest, collaborating which enables us to work together so everyone can win, compromising which allows us to satisfy some of our interests, avoiding which allows us to not get involved in the conflict at all, and accommodating which means we will put our interests last and allow others to have what they want.

The conflict management style of the senior loss prevention representative at Eckerd Corporation is the avoiding style. Unfortunately no matter what the conflict is she will avoid it instead of handling the situation. I do not agree with this style especially when it is the only one ever used. I do believe we have to pick and choose our battles and some battles are just not worth the effort but when this is the only style being used it can be very destructive. After taking the conflict management style assessment I realized I scored the highest on the collaborating style with a score of 1 and the lowest on the avoiding style with a score of seven, but I scored an 11 on the other three styles competing, compromising, and accommodating. These results show that to me the most important conflict management style is collaborating but the other styles competing, compromising, accommodating and even avoiding (in certain circumstances) are also very important. My conflict management style differs greatly from the senior loss prevention representative's style. I feel conflict should be handled immediately, all parties involved should meet and discuss the issues causing the conflict and she feels all conflict should be avoided.

We are all experiencing conflict right now in our class setting. Every week we are given assignments and discussion questions to answer. Each of us has our own opinion on what the right answer is for us but others may disagree with how the other person views the question or their answer in general. This disagreement is a form of conflict; we do not have to agree with every answer that is given by each student. We then decide how we want to deal with the conflict, do we decide to avoid the conflict by not responding back or do we respond to the person and try to accommodate the person, compromise with the person, collaborate with the person, or compete with the person. If I feel strongly about the topic or issue I will restate my position and try to collaborate with the person. If I do not feel strongly about the issue I will just ignore the response and move on. When I am faced with conflict I really have to choose which battles are worth the effort, when I was younger I would just jump into any conflict and waste a lot of valuable time dealing with issues that I did not really feel strongly about, as I grew older I realized that I was wasting a lot of my time and started only dealing with conflicts that I deemed important to me and the harmony of my workplace. Help with essay on Conflict Management Styles

Not all conflict should be considered destructive or dysfunctional some conflict is constructive or functional. Conflict can bring important problems to the surface, it can increase information for problem solving, and it can offer opportunities for creativity. Of course there is conflict that can be very destructive to an organization; this conflict can be two or more employees not getting along or members of a team failing to act because they can not reach an agreement on goals. Dealing effectively with the conflicts that confront us is a very important part of being a manager. We should all find our conflict management style and utilize it the best we can. Conflict is never going to end, we will all be faced with some sort of conflict, and it is very important how we choose to handled the conflict that faces us.

References

Schermerhorn, Jr. J.R., Hunt, J.G., Osborn, R.N. (00). Organizational Behavior.

John Wiley & Sons Inc.

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Italy in north afica

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The Italian Wars 144-155 -

Introduction

The key issues over which the Italian Wars were fought were primarily financial incentives for Charles VIII of France. He declared that he intended to use Naples as a base to drive the Ottomans out of Europe and liberate Constantinople. In actual truth his main motivation was self-glory and the mouth-watering prospect of acquiring some exquisite prizes of war. On the way he would acquire rich cities and portable pieces of art. It seems that this invasion had been planned for two years prior since Charles had already bought off potential rivals like Henry VII of England, Ferdinand and Macsimilion. He had also enlisted the support of Genoa and Milan, both within Italy. The regent of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, needed allies and his invitation in 154 seemed to Charles' plans perfectly. He accepted and the Italian wars began. Also, the Cardinal of Genoa resented the current Pope, Alexander VI. He invited Charles to come in, depose him and spark off the eagerly awaited church reform.

Events 144-1516 -

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There was a mixed reaction to the arrival of Charles in Italy. Florence revolted against its leader, Piero de Medici. The Popes army deserted him. In Naples the king died and rather than unite against his son the populous decided to capitulate.

There was however some reaction against Charles' activities. Ferdinand of Aragon decreed that since Naples was subject to the papacy, that the Popes honour had been attacked. He formed the League of Venice. His main intentions were to expel Charles and become the ruler of a united Naples, Sicily and Aragon. Charles began to withdraw to France and although he won a battle at Fornovo, his outnumbered garrisons couldn't retain Naples.

By 148 the situation in Italy was one of chaos and turmoil. Charles died in 148, which meant that there wasn't going to be a re-invasion. Popular uprisings in Milan and Florence saw the Medicis and the Sforzas overthrown. Civil war was raging on between Pisa and Florence and the accession of Louis VIII as French King meant that the prospects for peace did not look too good.

Louis had inherited Naples, but his main objective was Milan, which he invaded in 14. He settled for the Western half and gave the Eastern half to Venice. He then headed southward to Naples, which he had agreed to jointly rule with Ferdinand. Although this meant that Louis couldn't solely rule Italy he was in bad need of allies so as to not get driven back as his predecessor Charles VIII had done. In 150, the treaty of Blois gave Louis the right to Naples and the Pope's illegitimate son, Cesare Borgia, gained Perugia, Urbino and Pesaro. Borgia subsequently died in 1508 and Italy remained in peace for the following 4 years, although beneath the surface the various rulers were all plotting away for the next round of battles.

Pope Julius II came to power in 150 after the death of Alexander. He acted in a 'Iago' (Othello) role, by encouraging various rulers to invade Italy so that he may gain control of Venetian lands. In 1508 the league of Cambrai was formed that promised Maximillian, Padua and Verona, Ferdinand, who was recognised as king of Naples and Louis who was offered Eastern Milan. Despite a victory by Louis's infantry at Ravenna in 151, he lost his hold on Milan, Venice and Navarre, by being defeated the following year.

Peace looked a reasonable possibility in 1514 as Julius II had died and was replaced by the less 'ambitious' Leo X. The Sforzas and Medicis had retuned to their traditional lands of Milan and Florence. The idea of peace soon evaporated when Louis died in 1515. His successor Francis I, invaded Milan with 0,000 men, and upon an emphatic victory the only person capable of raising troops, was the Emperor, aided by English money. By 1516 peace was signed at Noyon. France controlled Milan and Genoa. Venice regained all the lands that it had lost and Spain retained Naples.

Events 1516-15 -

The accession Charles V to the Spanish throne became a very significant point in the Italian wars. When he was elected as Holy Roman Emperor in 151. Upon inheritance of the Netherlands, Franche Comte and Naples, France saw him as a clear and abundant threat. The war had now become a Habsburg Vs Valois affair, both had considerable financial and military might.

Both sides saw Milan as being vital to them. Charles saw it as being paramount since it lay on the route of the Habsburg, Austria-Spain communications route. Francis on the other hand would have felt very threatened by the strong and imminent presence of the Habsburg throne all around him. It would be a setback of the greatest magnitude if he, like his predecessors Charles VIII and Louis VIII, was driven back from the prosperous trade centre that was Milan. It also comprised the only route he had through the Alps into N.Italy.

Disaster struck for Francis in 151, when his invasion of Spanish Navarre was defeated. Even worse though, was the fact that in subsequent battles he lost Milan to Spain. In 155 Francis was taken prisoner at the battle of Pavia and extradited to Madrid. It can be insinuated that Charles acted 'naively' in not seizing the initiative and believing Francis's pleas for release in return for forfeiture of all Valois claims in Burgundy and Italy.

Francis was released, but it became clear in 156 that Francis would never willingly relinquish Milan. Charles marched into Florence and deposed the Medicis. His unpaid troops then reacted by marching southward into the Papal States, sacking the city of Rome and leaving it in waste. Francis retaliated by marching into Lombardy and attacking Spanish held Naples. His prospects for success seemed slim since in 158 his Genoese allies had deserted him.

The acquisition of Genoa then swung the war into Charles's favour. It severely damaged the North-South communications in Italy. Charles capitalised on this by defeating the French decisively in Milan and becoming crowned the official King of Naples. With French presence in Italy pacified, the Medicis were restored as rulers of Florence and the Sforzas to Milan, as clients to the Spanish throne. Furthermore Francis relinquished his claims to Milan, Naples, Genoa, Artois and Flanders. In 151 the Habsburgs were the effective rulers of Italy, as Charles was officially crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 150 and his brother, the King of the Romans in 151.

Events 15-155 -

The restart of the war was delayed until 155, after both France and Spain found themselves suffering severe financial shortfalls. They were both forced to uphold a truce. The French called for truces in 158, '46 and '57. The Habsburgs called for them in 154, 'in '44 and '57.

Francis took advantage of the death of Francesco Sforza, the Duke pf Milan in 155, and invaded once more. Fortunately for Francis the Ottomans had invaded Genoa and Charles had his hand forced into playing for time, as he didn't have the resources to fight both of these opponents simultaneously.

Francis retained Savoy for years, but soon became impatient and invaded Nice, while 'ambitiously' laying claim to Artois, Brabant, Luxembourg, Milan and Roussillon.

As a result of Francis's aggressive behaviour Charles, aided by Henry VIII, invaded France. Savoy and Boulogne were captured, and even Paris was threatened. The focal point of the Habsburg-Valois rivalry had shifted from Italy to France itself and N.West Europe. The death of Francis in 1547 should have prompted a recession in aggression, but the successor to the

French throne, Henry II had a personal score to settle with Charles. He had just spent years in a Madrid prison. He did not however let his emotions rule his decision-making and ruled 'prudently'. He capitalised on the Anglo Scottish skirmishes to take back Boulogne in 1550. Even more an intriguing acquisition was made when he turned Charles's problems with the Lutheran princes into his favour. He promised support to them in return for the bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdon. This gave him a tactical advantage of having access to Germany.

The balance of the affair had swung back towards the French as the Spaniards had several problems to deal with. Firstly the princes in Germany were being swung by the popular reformation. France now had troops in Metz and the Duke of Guise was winning battles in Italy, with Milan being threatened. To make matters worse the ottomans were making good progress up the N.African coast towards Spain. It seemed that the problems lay much closer to home now for Spain. All these factors culminated in the abdication of his throne by Charles, with power going to his son Philip II. Philip negotiated a peace with France and peace looked a more realistic prospect for the long term. The accession of the anti-Habsburg Pope Paul IV, again opened invitations for the French to invade Italy. The Duke of Guise tried for years to regain Naples and Milan but his attempts were unfruitful and ended when he was recalled to defend France from a Spanish invasion. From his HQ of the Netherlands Philip won his first battle against a French army in 1557. Henry finally thought that his work was complete when he had regained Calais from England. Both countries now had no choice but to make peace since neither had the finance to continue.

Results -

The treaty of Château Cambresis signalled the end of the wars. France was allowed a handful of towns such as Turin, Pinerolo and Saluzo, on the Italian side of the Alps. This meant that France still had a route through the Alps into Italy for not only trade but for a future invasion. France also retained control of Metz, Toul and Verdon, as well as Calais.

The result of the wars was that Spain gained effective control of Italy, but France on the other hand had reduced its Spanish 'encirclement'. Both countries were now financially impotent.

In Italy the effects of armies trudging up and down the countryside had taken its toll. Scenes of slaughter were commonplace, while several cities had been plundered. Italy as a whole had demonstrated that it had no 'cohesion whatsoever and as a band of separate states was highly susceptible to invasion. The traditional Italian rivalries had been clearly shown in the conflicts, while many privately rejoiced at the sack of Rome since it was the Pope who 'ironically' had invited foreign armies into Italy anyway.

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Chinese immigration

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Chinese Immigration

It is the idea that the process of urbanizing the Pacific Northwest was a slow and steady process. Solitary pioneers settled into an area, followed by a larger number of farmers, preachers and businessmen. As time progressed this network of people eventually grew from a small town into an urban city. Some historians are finding that this was not always the case; in some cases it is the city that precedes the settlers.

The Chinese immigrants quickly became an integral part of the workforce, being a source of reliable and yet inexpensive labor. Among the many significant contributions to the American economy incorporated the construction and completion of the first Transcontinental Railroad.

Unfortunately, as the economy underwent a recession, a job shortage occurred. The availability of Chinese workers was perceived as a threat and was unwelcomed. The growth of anti-immigrant sentiments resulted in the Chinese Exclusion Act of 188, which resulted in subsequent legislation limiting immigration from Asia.Help with essay on Chinese immigration

The Chinese immigrants came to Angel Island, which lies in the western part of San Francisco Bay and a few miles beyond the Golden Gate Bridge. Since the mid-1800s, many Asians were determined to seek better lives and economic opportunities in America. California was known as Gum San, or Gold Mountain.

At the Northeastern corner of Angel Island, barracks were set up to operate as an immigration station in 110.

One of the main functions of this station was to process hundreds of thousands of people seeking to immigrate to the United States from Asia.

The events administered at the immigration station were designed to enforce the exclusionary immigration laws enacted by Congress.

The experiences, which Asian immigrants had endured while being processed and "detained" at the immigration station, were of fear, humiliation, and sorrow. Immigrants were confined for a period from two weeks to as long as two years. Family members were separated from each other, and part of the process consisted of intense interrogation by officers.

The long wait for decisions caused most detainees tremendous grief and despair, in fact, many took their lives rather than face the humiliation of deportation.

Of all the immigrants having to suffer the Angel Island experience, the biggest group was the Chinese with approximately 175,000 people. Numbers of immigrants from Japan were a close second at over 100,000. The immigration station on Angel Island ceased to operate in 140 as the administration building was shut down because of a fire. The Chinese Exclusion Act was eventually repealed in 14.

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Measurement of Molecular Excitation Spectra by Laser Raman Effect

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Measurement of Molecular Excitation Spectra

by Laser Raman Effect

ABSTRACT

The phenomenon known as the Raman effect allows us to probe the energy levels intrinsic to a given molecule, giving us knowledge about its rotational and vibrational energies. By illuminating a transparent sample, either liquid, gas, or crystal, with an intense source of light, (preferably monochromatic or at least with sufficiently well- known and distinct spectral lines), inelastic scattering of electromagnetic radiation can be measured perpendicular to the beam line to obtain a spectrum which yields information about the energy levels of the molecule being studied.

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I. INTRODUCTION

In 11, with the foundations of quantum mechanics just being laid, Prof. C. V. Raman began a series of experiments to observe the scattering of light by transparent media. Although such studies were certainly not new as scientists and laymen alike had been studying transparent scattering for centuries (most notable among these researchers were perhaps Sir Isaac Newton and Christiaan Huygens), the depth and breadth of his research led Prof. Raman to observe a very weak secondary radiation scattered from transparent liquids, where the wavelengths were different from those already known. What is perhaps most remarkable about this observation is that it was made with sunlight as the illuminating source.

At a meeting of the South Indian Science Association at Bangalore on March 16, 18, Raman made the first public announcement of the phenomenon, showing his spectrum of carbon tetrachloride [1]. He showed that the frequency shifts, the relative intensities, and the state of polarization, among other features of the new spectral lines were independent of the exciting radiation. Thus, this new scattering method of investigation, which in many ways complemented infrared spectroscopy, revealed an amazingly easy and convenient way of mapping the vibrational and rotational spectra of chemical compounds. In the same year, P. Pringsheim [] labeled this new scattering phenomenon the Raman effect and therefore the spectrum of new lines, the Raman spectrum. A more detailed account of the historical background and subsequent applications of Raman spectroscopy can be found in the text by Anderson [].

In the results to follow, it will be our goal to successfully use the technique of Raman spectroscopy to measure the excitation spectra of several chemicals, most notably carbon tetrachloride CCl4, dichloromethane CHCl, and chloroform CHCl. In this paper we will examine the theory behind the Raman effect, discuss the experimental procedure for measuring spectra of the liquids in question, present our findings and analyses of the respective spectra, and draw the relevant conclusions.

II. THEORY OF THE RAMAN EFFECT

In its simplest description, the Raman effect is the result of a double photon transition involving three energy levels (i.e. stationary states of the time-independent Schrödinger equation). An incident photon from a preferably monochromatic source is absorbed by the material, causing the molecule to transition from its initial state (a) into an excited, intermediate state, often labeled the virtual level. The molecule then transitions into another state (b), emitting a photon. The energy shift of the emitted photon relative to the incident radiation tells us the energy difference between states (a) and (b), as indicated in Fig. 1. The spectral lines corresponding to a loss in energy of the photon are referred to as Stokes lines (as Fig. 1 depicts); those lines corresponding to a gain in energy are referred to as anti-Stokes lines, the terminology being lent from florescence.

In order to identify which vibrational or rotational mode is responsible for producing a given Raman line, it is necessary to consider not only this frequency shift, but also the state of the polarization of the Raman line (which depends upon the symmetry of a particular vibration) and the appearance or absence of the line in infrared absorption spectra. For the materials which we will study in our experiment, these properties are well documented, and we will use them to verify the accuracy and precision of our methods.

As briefly mentioned above, polarization plays a significant role in the Raman effect. Essentially all light scattering is based on the fact that incident radiation of a given frequency 9 induces an oscillating dipole moment in the material in question. Generically, we can say

(1)

where is a second-rank tensor that represents the polarizability of the molecule and is the electric field vector of the incident radiation. If the atoms execute periodic motion, is given by , where is the polarizability in the equilibrium configuration, is the maximum change of polarizability when the atoms vibrate, and 91 is the frequency of the atomic oscillation. This gives us

()

From Eq. () we can quickly see that we would expect the induced dipole moment then to radiate at three different frequencies, first 9, corresponding to the Rayleigh scattering line, and also (9 + 9 1) and (9 - 9 1) corresponding to the Raman anti-Stokes line and Stokes line, respectively. In short, it is the polarizability of the static molecule itself which leads to Rayleigh (elastic) scattering while the changes in polarizability during molecular motions are responsible for Raman (inelastic) scattering. For an example of a typical Raman spectra, illustrating the characteristic frequencies (usually between 100 and 000 cm-1), we refer the reader to a spectra of carbon tetrachloride collected by [4] in Fig. .

If a vibration of the atoms of a molecule introduces a corresponding periodic change in its polarizability, the scattered radiation will contain the sum and difference of the incident frequency and the molecular vibration frequency. This is what is known as the vibrational Raman effect. The intensity of any vibrational Raman line is determined by the magnitude of the displacement belonging to the corresponding normal vibration.

Thus, if we are armed with a detection scheme capable of measuring subtle shifts in the frequencies of scattered radiation, as well as a method of measuring the polarization of the scattered radiation (as well as incident), then we will be able to glean some detailed information about the inner structure and allowed vibrational modes of the molecule under study.

III. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Generically, any light source can be used to study the Raman effect. Raman himself used sunlight before switching to the more intense mercury arc lamp. For our purpose, we will use an Ar-ion laser, with the obvious benefits of having a narrow band width of the incident spectral line, a well-defined polarization, and distinct and very well-known frequencies. Our setup consists of the Ar-ion laser (with a wavelength of 488nm) and a power output of 100 mW), simple reflecting optics for directing the beam, a sample and sample holder, a condensing lens to focus the scattered light onto the spectrometer (a Spex Industries double monochromator), a photomultiplier tube (PMT) with Peltier cooler, and finally a computer for data analysis. A schematic of this setup can be found in Fig. .

Although the procedure for measuring Raman spectra is fairly straightforward, like any scientific endeavor worth undertaking, extreme care must be taken in order to achieve meaningful results. In accordance with this caveat, the monochromator should be considered the most crucial part of the entire experiment. Internally, it consists of directional optics to reflect and focus incident radiation onto two diffraction gratings in series. A motor drive with an external variable speed control turns the gratings, thereby scanning through different wavelengths which are selected by the gratings and then focused on an exit slit. A PMT is connected to the exit slit of the monochromator, and is in turn connected to a PC for data acquisition.

So, before the experiment can begin in earnest, we must first ensure accurate calibration of the monochromator. To do this we use incident light of known frequencies to match the wavelength-counter reading on the monochromator to specific wavelengths. This can easily be performed with a mercury arc lamp (or any other light source for which a detailed description of emission lines exists). Used in combination with a HeNe laser as a fixed reference point, one can obtain a plot of known wavelength vs. counter reading, whereby the equation of a linear least-squares fit will provide an accurate method of determining the actual wavelength for any measured counter reading.

With calibration complete, the sample (either carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, and dichloromethane) is placed in a cylindrical, transparent container which is wrapped with foil to eliminate further scattering, and then placed in the sample holder in alignment with the incident laser beam. Perpendicular to the incident beam, a condensing lens is used to focus scattered light onto the entrance slit of the monochromator. This scattered light contains a very intense peak corresponding to the Rayleigh scattering, and much fainter spectral lines to either side of the intense peak. The drive on the monochromator can be operated at variable speeds, and quick sweeps are made in order to find the Rayleigh peak. Once this has been accomplished, slow and careful sweeps in only the region of interest are made, with the knowledge that those peaks with lower frequency than the Rayleigh line (Stokes) will have greater intensity than the peaks with higher frequency (anti-Stokes). REFERENCES

[1] C.V. Raman and K.S. Krishnan, Indian J. Phys., , 87, (18).

[] P. Pringsheim, Die Naturwiss, 16, 567, (18).

[] A. Anderson, The Raman Effect, (Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 171).

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