MODELS OF CAPITALISM

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INTRODUCTION

United States, German and Japan have developed to be the most significant economic powers of the world. This document will discuss the key similarities and differences of these three systems as well as the strengths and weaknesses. Their power to adapt successfully to change is without a doubt an important measure when considering the chance of their survival. At the same time, we have to keep in mind the very basis of what provides capitalism is its essence, as Raymond Aron tells us (Dahrendorf, 167)

A capitalist system requires […] that the means of production are the object of individual appropriation; […] that the steering of the economy is decentralized and occurs on the market, [but also] that wage labour [be present] […] the predominant motive [being] the profit motive

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN US, GERMAN AND JAPANESE MODELS OF CAPITALISMHelp with essay on MODELS OF CAPITALISM

US AND GERMAN MODELS

US and German models share a broad acceptance of free trade, market determined product pricing and independent monetary policy. But, whereas the US model largely relies on market co-ordination of economic agents and seeks to address market failures by providing additional market elements where they are missing (e.g., tradable pollution permits, patents, etc.), the German model relies in many areas on non-market coordination, supplemented by a generous system of welfare protection. So, for example, Germany has a widespread and successful vocational training system that is strengthened by cooperation between firms in the setting of standards and the avoidance of free-riding; between firms and employees, through collective wage bargaining and co-determination through a largely mandatory system of works councils and worker participation on supervisory boards, and between these social partners and the education system. There is also substantial inter-firm collaboration in research and development (in conjunction with state-sponsored research institutions) (Hutton, W. 15).

Employees and companies alike are willing to make substantial relationship, specific investments and technology transfers on the basis of the trust provoked by co-determination, formal business organisations and the long-term provision of capital from "hausbanks" and committed cross-shareholdings. All this contrasts markedly with the US model with its "residual" welfare state, and its emphasis on competitive relations between companies, flexible labour markets, management autonomy, general education, market-determined technological standards and capital market financing. US companies have often succeeded in inspiring commitment from staff by creating a united internal corporate "culture", and their focus on shareholder value can demand an impressive compensation with the desires of the marketplace. Extensive legal liability, shareholder activism and, in some cases, "social audits", can also align the interests of the US corporate sector with broader social goals.

In Germany, as in many other European countries, a high degree of employment protection appears to have interacted with other labour inflexibility and with demand shocks to create an "insider-outsider" problem in the labour market preventing the wages of those still in work being offered low enough to price the unemployed back to work. Moreover, extensive cross-shareholdings, long-term bank finance, and co-determination (the very features that have helped underpin a long-term approach to investment and innovation) may have also prevented reallocation of capital and resources to radically new technologies with the scale and rapidity that we have seen in the US. By contrast, flexibility is built into the heart of the Anglo-Saxon model, in particular by the rigours of the capital markets on which it relies for finance. Given the emphasis on tangible short-term returns (outside the area of hi-tech start-ups), companies need a high degree of flexibility to react quickly to product-market and technological developments. They therefore place a high premium on management autonomy and the ability to hire and fire. The market for corporate control in particular increases the need for flexibility.

Industries in Germany and the US are principally internally financed with small or negative contributions from market sources.

US AND JAPANESE MODELS

The Japanese model is almost an opposite of the US model. The Japanese people are trained from the beginning to live as a community, to act as a team, at a very young age. It is a way of reducing the probability of opportunistic behaviour that would otherwise be a limit to the model's overall stability, equal pressure being a social regulator thereby forcing agreement among teams. This represents quite a contrast with the US individualistic model. Strangely enough, this team effort is an effective basis to compete on the cost cutting field that is privileged by US industrial corporations, probably because of the use of technology to supplement human work rather than replacing it as in the U.S., and achieving better quality this way. In the same way, the firm is traditionally regarded as a social organ internalising a lot of the aspects of the employees' welfare, by constantly training them and assuring them of a future within the firm, eliminating the need for the welfare state in the form commonly witnessed in Western Europe (W. Hutton pg. 48).

Unlike the U.S. firms, Japanese firms are not alone (i.e. fiercely independent) on their own markets, they are part of a bigger collection, which provides them a wide and very efficient network of relations (financial or of another nature) the kereitsu (W. Hutton pg.48-4). It entails them to an impressive source of internal investment capital, the centre of it being a financial institution fuelling the system's complex collection of elements. Economic agents, who consume from one another within the same kereitsu, encourage the stability of the system. In turn this stability allows for efficient cooperation as well as planning that reduces both uncertainty and transaction costs in the same network of alliances. This also lengthens the product life cycle management process and the profitability of each individual product. This is probably a factor explaining the rapid growth experienced by Japan. However, the fact remains that the ability to adapt as opposed to adopt imported goods or concepts is a great asset for the Japanese ever since the Tokugawa regime which provided spectacularly rapid economic development to the point where it may have seemed like a concept to copy.

The ratio of retention to investment is higher in the US than in Japan as a result of different investment behaviour rather than different retention policies. Indeed, the ratio is generally low for high investment countries like Japan.

Japanese industry is more externally financed with both banks and markets contributing larger shares. In the 180s, a period of financial liberalization, all countries, except Japan, have seen more internally and less market financed industry whereas the US are principally internally financed with small or negative contributions from market sources.

JAPANESE AND GERMAN MODELS

We can define the German and Japanese model as a group of institutions (including political institutions, intermediate associations, financial systems, labour relations systems, inter-firm networks, etc.) linked together into distinct national systems of economic governance. Organized market economies (OMEs) such as Germany and Japan differ from liberal market economies (LMEs) in that they look after more long-term cooperative relationships between firms and labour, between firms and banks, and between different firms. And the state and intermediary associations play a critical role in establishing and maintaining the framework for this private-sector coordination. Although there is considerable variation across sectors and across firms within individual countries, the OMEs remain sufficiently different from LMEs to make this a useful distinction. These governance structures affect everything from corporate strategy to public policy and economic performance.

The German and Japanese variants of the OME model also differ from each other. German firms, banks, and unions are more inclined to coordinate their activities at the sector level, whereas the Japanese coordinate through intersect groups. Japan has solid interfirm networks, including horizontal industrial groups as well as supply and distribution chains. The German government merely facilitates private-sector coordination, while Japanese government organizes and guides the private sector more directly (Hutton, 15 pg.46). The German government has programmed its economic model into law, whereas the Japanese model relies more on informal custom and standard practices.

The German and Japanese labour relations systems combine broad agreements on wage moderation in exchange for employment security with firm level agreement that encourage labour management cooperation. In Germany, sector employers associations and unions negotiate collective bargains on wages and benefits. In Japan, a few leading firms negotiate settlements with their enterprise-based unions during the annual spring wage offensive (shunt), and other firms then follow within a fairly narrow range of the leaders. These labour relations systems can benefit both sides, employers win control in wage demands, workers gain employment security, and both benefit from fewer labour disputes. In addition, firms avoid competing in wages or undermine labour-management cooperation through hot negotiations at the firm level.

Both systems also feature systematic labour representation in the management process. German firms are legally required to represent labour through a system of "code termination," whereas Japanese companies naturally incorporate labour despite the lack of a legal requirement. Labour participation at the firm and plant level; help labour-management cooperation on the shop floor, a critical element in German and Japanese firms' ability to continuously raise efficiency. Long-term cooperative relations between labour and management also gives firms the incentive to invest in human resources. German firms typically do this through a distinctive dual (firm and school) vocational training system, whereas Japanese firms train their workers directly. In the political realm, German employers' associations and unions are both represented in most important decision-making bodies, whereas Japanese business enjoys better access than labour to central ministries and the ruling party.

Germany and Japan both have credit-based financial systems in which banks have dominated the long-term financing of industry. The Japanese government has actively directed the allocation of credit through government financial institutions and private banks, whereas the German government has left the banks with greater freedom.

In the German constitution, the method for government is clearly defined within the constructs of a social state. On the contrary, as Japans economic growth demonstrates, Japan has put priority on its economy and its industries, an emphasis that for many approaches the extreme.

In both countries, however, firms have developed long-term relationships with their primary banks, known as Hausbanken in Germany and main banks in Japan. The banks monitor firm performance and assist firms in trouble. The firms, in turn, remain loyal clients they conduct a large and stable share of their borrowing and transaction business with their lead bank.

CONCLUSION

WEAKNESSES

These models, like any other, experiences a few problems

US MODEL

The models' challenging nature is reflected in almost every area of the society. For example, this affects corporate governance through the struggle between managers and shareholders, between those who run a firm and those who legally own it. Laws are also clearly in favour of shareholders without much concern for the stakeholders. This causes investment to be oriented in the short term increasing risk and uncertainty in the external capital market that might eventually provoke such things as under investment therefore creating a favourable climate for hostile takeovers and over indebtment (with the abusive use of LBOs for instance). A company's stock too often serves as a benchmark for its performance although they are the basic limits of this approach.

The minimal state and the corporate system altogether are putting a lot of pressure onto individuals because of the uncertainty on the job market, the relative absence of social assistance to the unemployed, and the fact that it is one's own responsibility to get adequate training rather than the firm's (W. Hutton pg.41). This in turn leads to a bipolarised distribution of wealth in society; the richer being able to train and hope for a better income while the poorer see their skills becoming less valuable (W. Hutton pg.41). It could be considered as the toll to pay for more flexible labour markets.

GERMAN MODEL

This model, similarly to the Japanese, relies heavily on insider trading that might eventually cause over investment because of satisfaction and lack of transparency. German capitalism, despite its commitment to quality, shows its inability to compete on a cost effectiveness basis with the Japanese (the lean producers) and more the Americans; this leads inevitably to a slide in German international market share for consumer goods.

The cartels and the Mittelstand (the important base of small and medium corporations) then become unable to compete on a cost cutting basis because the system can't allow them to. This rigidity is in part due to the peculiarly important place of the welfare state which puts a lot of pressure on the economy at the same time it fuels it by providing the unemployed access to the same quality of life than the employed allowing the former to maintain their level of consumption. It proves to be a downside in an environment of harsh competition leading to higher levels of unemployment; the state having to raise its spending with lowering revenues, and having trouble to keep up with its enabling role. Thereby raising the spectrum of rising social inequalities.

JAPANESE MODEL

This model's weaknesses are probably an unintended consequence of its strengths. For instance, the insider trading reduces transparency of the Japanese public corporation causing equity markets to be more volatile and less reliable to determine what a firm really is worth; this could be seen as a by-product of a system which is founded on trust and implicit contracting, unlike the U.S. model providing very explicit and clearly codified modes of contracting. Another problem concerning the Japanese system is its tendency to over invest given the incentives to do so exist and no really efficient safeguard prevents it. An answer might be a cycle of internal capital markets showing how mutual dependence between firms is built into the system thereby implying that if a firm experiences problems, its partners from the same kereitsu will do everything necessary (i.e. invest, lend managerial and technical expertise, etc.) to bail it out.

In this peculiar model, growth is very much internally generated, the system fuelling itself into a good circle of self-protectionism that in effect sustains consumption in encouraging economic actors not to buy from outsiders and be willing to pay a supplement for it, leading the way to a self- sustain. In that regard, this model is very Keynesian in its economic system's organization and Galbraithian considering its pattern of industrial organization. It works very well in periods of prosperity, but is a major weakness when the tides are turning firms cannot face up to the enormous costs of internalising social functions like some frictional unemployment. There also are implications in bargaining power for the workforce, Japan being historically a small country with few resources, the workforce feels it does not have the influence to behave too aggressively in their expectations for negotiating better work conditions because of a zero sum perception regarding potential gains of a given group.

REFERENCES

Hutton, W. (000) 'The diversity of capitalisms' in Understanding Business Markets, Routeledge, London, pp.-54

Gray, J. (000) 'Capitalism and global free markets' in Understanding Business Markets, Routeledge, London, pp.56-6

Singh, A. (000) 'Why did East Asia grow so Fast' in Understanding Business Markets, Routeledge, London, pp. 64-80

Brown, V. (000) 'competition and power in markets' in Understanding Business Markets, Routeledge, London, pp.117-14

www.google.com - Douglas N. Ross 'Communitarian capitalism A Market Model For China?

www.google.com - OECD Observer 'Which model of capitalism?'

www.google.com - Wolfgang Streeck 'German capitalism Does it exist?, Can it survive'

www.askjeeves.com - Socio-economic Systems After World War II German Social State vs. Japan Inc.

'Institution and Economic growth what model of capitalism for Central and Eastern Europe' Lucian Cernat July 001, Conference of institution in transition.

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Running

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Cast Away vs. Marlows Hierarchy

When Tom Hanks first got the island he started to look for food and water. He found water in a coconut shell and drank it. He then searched around on the island for food. He wasn't very successful because he had no fire to cook the food. He did eat the coconuts though. After a while he decided to try and catch fish with a spear. He was unsuccessful because he was not fast enough to catch the fish. These are all examples of the physiological needs in Marlow's Hierarchy. He then tried over and over to start a fire. When you have physiological needs, all you can think about is getting food. He wrote the word "HELP" in the sand hoping someone would see it. These are examples of both physiological needs and safety needs. If he had the fire, he could cook food over it. It could also be used to signal planes or ships that he was on the island.

He also put together a little tent like fort that served as his shelter. Later on, there was a big storm and he moved to a cave that he came across. He needed a safe place to stay when the weather got bad. The cave provided safety from the outside. When he was trying to start the fire, he cut his hand. He then picked up a volleyball and threw it. He went to pick up the volleyball and realized that his hand had made a face on the ball. He started talking to the ball all the time. He even acted as if he was having an actual conversation with the ball. Tom got upset when he kicked the ball and could not find it. He became very attached to the volleyball that he named Wilson that he got very upset and even started to cry when he lost the ball towards the end of the movie. He kept a picture of his fianc with him the whole time he was on island. This gave him hope and it was also a reason to live. These are all examples of the belongingness needs. Over the period of time that Tom was on the island, he did everything he could to keep a high self esteem and not have a negative attitude. He kept a calendar on a rock that he updated daily and he kept one package that he did not open. He told himself that he was going to deliver this package and I think that was one reason he had for living.

Self actualization played a big part in this movie. Throughout the movie Tom's idea of if he was going to live or not changed. At one point in the movie he made a rope and threw over a wooden man that he had carved off a cliff to see what would happen if he jumped off the cliff w/ the rope around his neck. One morning Tom woke up to the noise of a porter potty hitting the rocks on the island. This gave him a newfound hope and a reason to live. He realized that he could make it off the island if he worked hard and waited for the right time. He waited for the right time and eventually he made it off the island. At one point when he was on the ocean he wanted to die. He left his oar behind and just floated on the island. This showed that Tom lost all hope in living. However, Tom was rescued and brought home. When he was at home, he found out that his fianc had married and Tom's belongingness needs were shattered. Some of the things that Tom did in the movie were out of place in Marlow's Hierarchy but Tom generally followed the Hierarchy of needs. There were many similarities and differences in the way tom survived according to Marlow's Hierarchy of needs.

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Merger/Acquisition Transition Plan

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There are many pieces to the puzzle that can make or break a merger/acquisition. While a well-thought out plan is important, it is the people who carry out that plan that will decide its level of success. The following is our department's transition plan. Here, the needs and criteria for developing effective leadership; its practical and theoretical dimensions, the staffs' communication, and empowerment issues, as well as, the needs of the group, are discussed.

Leadership is easy to recognize, but difficult to define. It is a journey with many detours along the way; it involves experimentation, failure, risk and rewards, and movement toward a specific set of goals. Effective leaders explore their own motivation and reflect upon successes and failures. They are able to analyze failure and extract lessons that can lead to success in the future. (Donnelly, 00, p.8)

As a merger takes place, there is a need to develop a plan and goals for the leadership team. The first objective for a new leadership team is to get to know the staff. Each member of the new team will offer a different perspective, and bring a variety of skills and experience to the team. Learning how staff relates to one another is a key for building an effective high performance team. Some staff may be leaders, and others, followers; therefore, understanding the patterns of relationships amongst staff is a key element.

Context is the next need that must be developed. It is vital to set goals and/or visions with the staff, which may include values and traditions. Defining the structure of groups and individuals is necessary for the new leadership team. The leadership team must determine whether the staff solves problems passively or as a team; the staff is committed to completion of work and are accountable for it; conflicts are solved quickly; the staff support one another; staff works as a team or do they place higher values on individuality; there is a history of the staff participation with the leadership team. (Donnelly, 00, p. 8)

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The third element of the leadership plan is purpose. Purposeful leadership unleashes leadership potential in others. (Donnelly, 00, p.8) It is important for the leadership team to influence staff members, to build a plan of action that will lead towards organizational goals. Influence requires positive and effective relationships among the leadership team and staff. Zuker defines influence as the ability to affect others without exerting force or formal authority. (Zuker, 11) Listening to employees without judging is crucial where influence is concerned.

The fourth element of this plan is accountability. It is necessary for leadership to be accountable and foster accountability among staff. It requires a continuous effort and should be integrated into all aspects of leadership and management. Empowering staff can improve efficiency, as they will feel that they have the authority to make decisions, without having to wait for someone else's permission. The staff will perceive autonomy and involvement. The goals and expectations must be made clear to the associates; they must be provided with the necessary information and resources to make the right decisions.

Effective leadership is dependent upon outstanding leadership styles and the successes of people leading an organization. When developing a leadership plan for the planned merger/acquisition transition, one must look at the leadership skills of those within the management team. Effective management does not equate with effective leadership. Do they have the characteristics, skills, and abilities of a successful leader? According to Weiss (000), characteristics of good leaders include energy, ideas, success, responsiveness, and command. Leaders must have positive energy and charisma, which stimulates their staff. These leaders have many ideas to share, and previous successes, which support their effectiveness. Staff will have confidence in their leaders' abilities, faith that they will lead them in the right direction, and will feel validated by being included in the planning process. Command refers to "perseverance in promoting a plan and quickness in reacting to challenges" (Weiss, 000). Weiss (000) also discusses important abilities of an effective leader. They exemplify their own beliefs and values in their day to day performance. They go that extra mile and always work in collaboration with staff. Suggestions, to enhance processes and problem solve, are always included for consideration. Extra efforts by staff are acknowledged and insufficiencies are dealt with. Indecisiveness is not an option for the effective leader. In this situation, staff will lose faith and respect for their leader. It is imperative that today's leaders continue their own education by attending workshops, seminars and continuing education courses. Not all leadership skills and abilities are innate; they must be learned. Along with faith and respect, staff must trust that their leaders are directing them on the right path. Delegation of duties involves staff in the functioning of the organization and fosters a buy in, collaboration, and faith that the organization is moving in a positive direction. It is imperative that staff understands exactly what is expected of them to ensure their success. The importance of influencing peoples' performance is also expressed by Weiss (000). Leaders must acknowledge and appreciate the efforts of their staff. They must be treated fairly, equitably, and must be trusted. When planning for any project or fulfilling a management position, successful leaders must be sought.

An approach to leadership follows various theoretical models. For this merger/acquisition transition, the path-goal theory, developed by Robert House, is applied (Robbins, 001). This theory supports the idea that "it's the leader's job to assist his or her followers in attaining their goals and to provide the direction or support or both needed to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization." (Robbins, 001, p.) During this merger/acquisition, leaders will be sought for supporting the transition and assisting staff through the process, while at the same time, maintaining or improving productivity. The leaders' role is to assist the staff to achieve "their work goals and make the journey along the path easier". (Robbins, 001, p.) Four leadership behaviors are identified in this theory. They include directive, supportive, participative, and achievement oriented (Robbins, 001). Directive leadership will be used to explain to staff their roles and responsibilities within the transitioned organization. It is important for staff to understand job expectations, as well as, specifics on how to accomplish their work in an efficient manner. Supportive leadership will improve job satisfaction by letting staff know that their needs are considered and valued. During the merger/acquisition there will undoubtedly be, job losses, and changes in roles, responsibilities, and job descriptions. Staff will need to understand that their leaders understand the difficult times they are going though, and assist those that will be unemployed to be successful in seeking other jobs. The participative leadership style will include staff in the decision making process. Their ideas and suggestions will be considered as a group and decisions made. This leadership style encourages staff buy-in, improved compliance, and satisfaction with the final outcomes. With staff inclusion in the decision making process, resistance to change can be somewhat reduced. The final leadership behavior to discuss is achievement oriented behavior. By setting ambiguous work related tasks employees are encouraged to work at their highest level (Robbins, 001). One of our new organization's goals is to have less bureaucratic structural design, which will empower staff to take ownership of their responsibilities and productivity, and encourage greater participatory communication.

During the process of massive change, there is an increased need for communication between management and staff. For some organizations, lack of communication may continue after a merger/acquisition. According to Tom Geddie of ABC "companies are discovering that they cannot take employees for granted if they want to thrive in today's increasingly complex business environment". (Anonymous, 17)

While most companies understand the need for increased or better communication, the question is how do they know what is the best method for their company? Collecting information about the communication techniques other organizations use, provides useful information, but is not a blueprint for improvement. Organizations can obtain many strategies for employee communication by researching other successful company's communication style. However, just because some other company does something well, this doesn't mean it will work for every organization. It could even be detrimental. What you do must be aligned and crafted to support your business mission and values. (Ackley, 17)

Ackley provides an excellent guide with regard to what employee communication should accomplish. "Employee communication, like every function, must help the organization make money, save money, increase customer satisfaction, and demonstrate the organization's people values. And it must propel the organization's vision by helping teach employees how to do their work…" (Ackley, 17) An organization's vision and mission are covertly and overtly communicated even they are not written down. Employees demonstrate the organizations mission, values or personality in their work ethic. (Ackley, 17)

Although there is no one best way to implement employee communication during stressful times, such as a merger/acquisition. James Secord, CEO of Lakewood Publications went through three separate takeovers in sixteen months during 14 and 15. He gives four basic principals to keep the communication strong between management and staff. He states that first there needs to be a "shared vision as well as shared incentives". (Secord, 16) It is important that everyone be asked to participate in the communication process.

Next, it is critical to create an atmosphere of openness. Share as much information with employees as possible. Don't hold anything back. Even if there is no new information, keep communicating. Openness is the antidote to crippling uncertainty.

Middle and senior management need to make themselves available to staff. It is extremely important, no matter how busy, to make time to be in the department. They should ask staff how they are doing, and allow them to express their fears so management can address all concerns. It is important to be prepared to go through some tough times. Communication is imperative. Leaders must try not to anticipate how staff will react to bad news. They may surprise you.

Another aspect that goes hand in hand with better communication is the empowerment of employees. Particularly when staff has been downsized, the remaining staff needs to be motivated and energized. The importance of empowering the remaining staff is critical to the success of this merger/acquisition. When staff size is reduced, the remaining staff frequently has heavier workloads and extended hours, which lead to higher rates of absenteeism and turnover, both of which are very costly to the organization. In order to regain our competitive edge we need to make some changes.

According to Dr. Gail Cook Johnson, president of REACON Management Inc., "companies that provide superior service gain their competitive advantage by empowering employees". (11) She lists a number of attributes that organizational leaders consistently do which improve their employee's performance.

Management must follow through with what they say they will do, rather than say one thing and do another. Management needs to do more than just state high ideals and principals. They must be willing to update systems that improve employee's ability to do their jobs well.

Fairness is another trait that employees notice about good management. Employees need to have clear expectations about what behavior is acceptable and unacceptable. It is also important to be clear about the goals of the organization and how staff can accomplish them.

It is important to demonstrate value for employee's ideas and encourage them to make suggestions. Allowing staff to carry out their recommendation keeps them more connected and committed to the process and the organization. Some propose that in order to encourage employee suggestions that management pledge to address those submissions within 7 hours. (Epstein, 18) When management gives staff more flexibility and personal responsibility to solve customer issues then both staff and customer satisfaction increases.

Empowering staff is not just about the latest human resource trend. It is a management tool, which increases the intrinsic rewards for staff, thereby making their jobs more satisfying and fulfilling. It is rewarding to both employees and customers and, therefore, makes good business sense. (Johnson, 11)

The one important need, of a group in transition, is effective communication. For the leadership team to expect high levels of commitment, staff must be made aware of the mission philosophy and goals of the organization, and their relationship to them. It is essential to create a healthy organization to establish dialogue and communication that will connect people throughout the organization. Effective teams are built on a foundation of inclusiveness, collaboration, communication, relationships, vision and accountability, with communication being one of the most critical elements. (Donnelly, 00, p. 107) Clear communication is the link between all levels of the organization. Distributing useful information to employees about planned change and providing them with a means of giving feedback is essential. Communication is of utmost importance before, during, and after any change process.

Another important aspect of the needs of individuals or groups is to be able to share the vision of an organization. It depicts where the team wants to go and what it will look like when the team gets there. It is an image of the future. Leaders can articulate what an organization or team can and should accomplish as a means of drawing attention to the vision.

Fairness and justice are needs that for many people must be fulfilled. Staff is much more effective and efficient when working in an environment that is tempered by fairness and justice. Staff should see that everyone is being treated the same. (Weiss, p.5)

Two very important needs of staff member are appreciation and acknowledgement. It is important to take the time to thank team members and recognize them for their achievements and efforts. To create recognition and appreciation models that work, leaders must focus on things that are within their control. Leaders can create a recognition plan that is meaningful, and creates a culture of pride and teamwork. Employees need to know that their efforts are valued, and that their attempts to improve the organization are a beneficial and appreciated. (Donnelly, 00, p. 14) By communicating the appreciation of the leadership team to the staff it creates a culture where it is safe to try new things.

Mergers and acquisitions happen due to fiscal issues. Its success depends on a well thought out leadership plan. As discussed, there are many critical issues pertaining to this merger/acquisition. None is more important than the resource of people, management, and front line staff, who work tirelessly to keep our organization running, improving and succeeding well into the future.

References

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from Infotrac database.

Weiss, W.H. (000). Effective leadership What are the requisites? SuperVision, 61(8),

-6.

Zuker, E. (11). The Seven Secrets of Influence. New York McGraw-Hill Book Co..

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Cultural Awareness

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Cultural Awareness in the U.S. Classroom

In the commentary on the case study of the seventeen year old European American

Vanessa Mattison, the author of our text, Sonia Nieto, states, "Vanessa took the approach that cultural and racial differences are not significant, that 'it couldn't matter less to me.' In this, she is simply reflecting the value of being color-blind, which we all have been led to believe is both right and fair. In this framework, differences are seen as a deficit rather than an asset." (Affirming Diversity-Nieto, page 8). This has raised my awareness on two levels, both in the classroom and as a mother, bringing up my own children who are now fourteen and sixteen.

Does the idea of being color-blind automatically negate the cultural differences? Does it mean we only see those differences as a deficit? In this, I must take issue with the author. I do not believe that saying, "I don't care what color his skin is" means that we toss aside his ethnic diversity. It only means that we see past his skin color to an individual person first, then take joy in all the things that make up that person, ethnicity being an important part. Considering our "sorting game", one might even say it was a good idea to look past his skin color first to the individual because the majority of the time, we can't tell who is what by looking at them anyway. I do believe it is important to celebrate a person's heritage, but not at the expense of that person's individuality.

We tend to think in terms of a person of different ethnic origin walking into a classroom with a majority of Caucasian children, but it is interesting to imagine the reverse. What if Vanessa walked into an inner city school where 80 % of the children were Black and Latino. Would she feel comfortable? Would she encounter reverse discrimination? These questions made me take a look at the population of Blacks, Latinos, and Whites at my elementary school, which is pretty evenly divided into thirds. Nowhere is the study of the children's social customs more evident and easy to read than in the cafeteria during lunch, and here I made a startling discovery. I cannot say how it is at any other school but at Atlantic West, interestingly enough, the children separate into groups. These groups are NOT ethnically divided but personally divided according to individual attitudes. The defiant troublemakers, the shy quiet timid kids, the smart good grade ethic ones, the girly fashion conscious girls, the sports jocks, and others not so clearly defined. As my school mainstreams our autistic students for specials, and I sit with them during lunch, I have had the opportunity to observe this grouping first hand many times. During music today, I watched three boys who were obviously the best of friends, defiantly talk back to the teacher and throw papers at people. One was White, one was Black, one was Hispanic. It could have been a bad television show. They were comrades-in-arms and it was also obvious that they didn't really care about each others cultural diversity. They were friends because they all had bad attitudes towards authority.

My children are another example of why I disagree with Sonia Nieto's negative description of what she calls "color-blindness". My daughter Shaina's favorite teacher was her fourth grade teacher, whom she still keeps in touch with. She spent a month raving about her wonderful new teacher and all the "cool" things she was learning and how nice Mrs. Singleton was. I was excited to meet her at Open House and made the discovery that night that Priscilla Singleton was Black. Shaina had never mentioned it to me. She did not negate this fact, on the contrary; throughout the year Mrs. Singleton brought to her teaching little bits of who she was culturally. When they studied Kwanzaa, we were so intrigued by the beauty of the philosophy of it that we added it to our own celebrations of the season. Shaina never saw Priscilla Singleton's heritage as a deficit; she simply saw past her skin color to a person who was and is a loving and gifted teacher who is an African American woman. Shaina also has Latino friends who she loves because they have attitudes in common. But she does not negate their heritage; she celebrates it. It is not, however, why they originally became friends, it is just part of the whole person that she loves. My son Scott is on the cross-country and track team at Pompano Beach High School. He is friends with a young Black man not because he is or isn't Black, but because they have something in common. Despite the fact that they are the two slowest people on the team, they love running and enjoy the exercise and the feeling of being part of a team.

I believe that depending on where the school is, and the age levels, prevailing attitudes among different social groups can be very different, as well as the structure of the groups themselves. On the elementary level, I would encourage "Culture Days" that would celebrate each ethnic group in my classroom. I would ask that particular children bring in information about their heritage; perhaps a parent could contribute an ethnic dish that we all could taste, and every child in the class could find out one piece of interesting information to add to the day and the discussion. I would make sure that the walls of my classroom celebrated and informed about the diversity of our country. I would bring in music of different cultures and teach my class songs. I would encourage learning about, and class celebrations of, different holidays. I would try to learn every day from my students and hope that they would learn every day from me. Most of all, I would try to show them, through word and action, that I considered each of them a rare and precious individual whose culture was a beautiful part of what they are.

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Drinking & Driving

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Drinking and Driving

One of the most critical problems facing our society today is that of drinking and driving. Because we see it all the time, it almost isn't shocking to see news about drinking and driving accidents that occur in results to death. More recently drinking and driving has become more and more part of our society. We hear about innocent people getting killed by drunk drivers all the time. It is hard to think that the roads are that unsafe. In my opinion, we as a society don't do enough to keep the drunk drivers of the road.

James Duval was killed at the age of . He was driving to work after dropping his kid off at the babysitters, and a drunk driver hit him on the way back from the bars. He was immediately rushed to the Sacramento hospital. He died on the way there in the ambulance.

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I learned about James in a journal article titled "Hit and Run" by Mike Peterson. After I was done reading the article, I immediately became upset. The part that angered me the most was that the person tried to run after hitting James. The drunk driver that hit James was John Padden. He was driving home from a bar early that morning liqeured up. He was not hurt as bad as James was in the accident. James was definitely in the wrong place at the wrong time, but that knows reason to get killed.

A lot of people witnessed this violent collision. They all surrounded the ambulance that James was being put in. John was trying to hobble away from the accident, but didn't really get that far. I feel really bad for his close ones. Him and his wife just got married a few months ago. Now the kid has to grow up the rest of his life with out his real father and his wife has to suffer with out him.

I have always felt bad for the people I hear about mourning for there lost ones. It is hard to believe that a person can get in a car, and risk the lives of other people by drinking and driving. Never being directly affected by drunk drivers, I never did anything to change it or prevent it from happening.

I have always had very strong opinions about drinking and driving. A drunk driver killed one of my friend's two years ago, and that's when I realized that it could happen to people that I know.

I was working at the Rec Park in my hometown lifeguarding, and I saw my friend running through the park to talk to me. I knew that something was wrong by the look on his face. He came to tell me that my good friend Jerry was just killed in a car accident by a drunk driver. I was devastated, but I realized that I was lucky in a way. He had asked me to go to Plattsburgh that morning to go to the mall with him, fortunately I had to work. I left work not knowing what to think.

I still look back to that day when I saw my friend running across the park. It still is hard to believe that something like this happened to someone so close to me and affected so many people close to my heart. The most important thing that I have learned is that life isn't fair sometimes, but things happen for a reason.

I have no clue what it takes to keep drunk drivers off the road, but we can't keep loosing innocent lives to this. The punishment is more severe now, but obviously not severe enough because it keeps happening.

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The game of dog

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Statistical analysis

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1. Executive Summary.

In the last two decades issues regarding management of Information Technology (IT) within organizations have gained due consideration. The heavy reliance on IT has caused difficulties for chief executives' officers (CEOs) to optimize their computing resources. The Information Technology Computer Council of South Africa has collected raw data in a way of a survey of fifty-four small and medium sized organizations to investigate the degree of IT usage in South Africa. The raw data of this survey was used in the statistical analysis performed in this study in attempts to assess the depth and breadth of IT usage in business. The parameters such as organizational (size, sale or profitability and type of business) and chief executives (educational level and computer literacy, ownership of PC and computer experience) have been studied. The study highlights how sales figures of the organizations; type of business and CEO computer literacy contributes toward the use of IT.

Information Technology (IT) plays a vital role in the sustained growth of business

organizations. The term IT is defined in a broad sense as "technologies dedicated to information storage, processing, and communications" (Ang et al 17). This notion of IT focuses on a combination of hardware, software, telecommunications, and office equipment that transform raw data into useful information for speedy retrieval. Increasing investment in IT and the strategic role played by information systems make IT implementation an important research issue within the MIS discipline. While the strategic importance of IT is established and progress has been made in understanding it, less is known about how to implement IT effectively for achieving general organizational goals. Help with essay on statistical analysis

In this study, the size of greater than 50 employees to less than 50 employees, has been defined as medium size organizations whereas, size of less than 50 employees is treated as small organization.

. Background

The reason for this study is as the Information Technology Computer User council of South Africa it is imperative to understand the market's that are available and that can be penetrated with regard to information technology sales, ongoing support, and implementation of computer systems. As a training organization developing IT consultant who in turn are encountered with tasks of assisting senior management with information technology strategy formulation and implementation of information technology concepts, this study will assist in understanding the dept and breadth of information technology in business.

. Objective Of Analysis

The central theme of this analysis is to examine the extent of the use of IT in various small and medium business organizations in South Africa. This has been achieved through conducting a study by formulating the following two specific objectives

ɨ To identify and to assess the extent of the use of IT in organizations

ɨ To identify the factors that may influence IT use in the organization.

4. Literature Survey

The extent of use of information technology is actually related to the computing

Environment. Computing environment is normally classified into two broad categories

ɨ the traditional data processing (DP)

ɨ and end-user computing (EUC). I

In the DP environment the user interacts with the computer indirectly through professionally trained staff. On the other hand, in EUC, the user interacts directly with the computer through application software. In EUC, the user is supported by professional consultants, a vendor support program or through education/training firms who act as intermediaries between the computer and the user.

This analysis review's the EUC. The main reason for selecting the EUC is characterized by the control that user have over choice as to when and how to use a computer. Moreover, EUC has grown rapidly within last twenty years. It is estimated that annual EUC growth rate of 50% to 0% (Rockart & Flannery). With this increase use of EUC among business organizations, it would be quiet appropriate to study on EUC environment. Raymond (18) reported that the concentration of IT in big organizations was more on supporting managerial functions, whereas, in small organizations the concentration on IT was more on operational functions.

5. Research Model

Relevant literature was reviewed in order to find a suitable model and to propose various hypotheses based upon it. For this study it has been decided to use the one stage model developed by Dimension Data (Figure 1) relating to various variables for this study. Each of the variables used in the model is discussed below

ɨ Organizational Parameters

The role of the organizational parameters such as size, structure, profitability was

considered as vital in the microcomputer usage. This analysis postulates the following hypotheses

ɨ H1 (a) Size of business exerts a positive effect on the organizational use of IT.

ɨ H1 (b) Type of business exerts a positive effect on the organizational use of IT.

ɨ H1 (c) Sale of business exerts a positive effect on the organizational use of IT.

ɨ Chief Executives' Parameters

CEO's knowledge of computers and involvement in computerization leads to more successful computer use. Change in chief executives' attitude toward IT can be achieved by the method of training adopted and stressed upon the structure of training, are of great importance in developing positive attitudes of the users. Training can provide better understanding of IT and as such it significantly reduces computer anxiety and foster the positive attitude toward microcomputers greater end-user experience increased the likelihood of end-user computing success. Based upon the above, the following four hypotheses are postulated

ɨ H (a) Academic qualification of CEO exerts a positive effect on the organizational use of IT.

ɨ H (b) Computer literacy of CEO exerts a positive effect on the organizational use of IT.

ɨ H(c) Computer experience of CEO exerts a positive effect on the organizational use of IT.

ɨ H (d) Ownership of PC by CEO exerts a positive effect on the organizational use of IT.

6. Data Collection

Secondary data from a research company was used in this research. (refer to appendix for the sample questionnaire used by them in obtaining the data)

A survey was conducted by the market research company from October 000 to December 000. A questionnaire was sent to 14 various private sector organizations. The details of which appear in the Appendix. The questionnaire was emailed & posted. Out of these, 10 organizations have responded with a response rate of 7%. The questionnaire from fifty-four organizations was filled up by their chief executives officers and was therefore retained for the purpose of the survey thus bringing the real response rate to 54/14 = 8%. Further adopting stratified/purpose selection method, the final results were classified into following main groups

a) Banks/Insurance

b) Hotels/Food Catering

c) Travel & Shipping

d) Retailers & Wholesalers

e) Construction

f) Service organizations.

For the purpose of the survey, the above classification presents a reasonably and comprehensive approach towards inference making on the study.

7. Satistical Analysis

Out of the fifty-four organizations, 7% of the organizations were identified as

medium-sized companies and 6% are small-size companies. (Refer to Appendix Figure 1 main business activities of responding organizations).The use of information technology ranges from somewhat use to very much use. However, the majority (54%) of the organizations indicated their usage from "most of the time" to "all of the time" (mean of .51 with standard deviation of 1.0). It is also noticed that use of IT is at minimal level at 4% of the organizations.

5% of these organizations have annual sale of less than R 1 million. 40% of

Organizations claimed their sales were in between R million and 5 million. Whereas, 0% of the business claimed their sales exceeded $10 million.

Most of the respondents are aged between 0- years and possess first or Bachelor's degree. 6% of the respondents are male as compared to 7% of females. About 6% of them reported to have a personal computer.

ɨ Hypotheses Testing

In line with the principles of multivariate data analysis, the paired or zero order

correlation between the independent and dependent variables is shown in Table . The correlation provides directional support for the predicted relationship and shows that collinearity among the independent variables is sufficiently low so as not to affect the stability of regression analysis. Examinations of the correlation reveal that there exists an inter-correlation among independent variables. The CEO's in-house training, ownership of PC, sales and type of business are statistically significantly correlated with the usage of IT (dependent variable). It is apparent from the table that correlation coefficient is significant and positive for three of the four variables. However, negative correlation exists between

ownership of PC and the predicated use of IT. The correlation is negative but significant. That may be due to the facts that slightly higher proportion of the respondents have PC but it affects towards use of IT is negative. The next step is to look at the combined effects of these variables in predicting the use of IT through stepwise multiple regression analysis. However, in conducting this regression the problem of multicollinearity should be dealt with. None of

the variables are highly inter-correlated thus fulfilling Hair et al's (17) criterion that says that variables to qualify for multicollinerity should have coefficient of correlation .80 or above. The results of stepwise multiple regression analysis is presented in Table .

Computer experience is measured on six items; the reliability of the scale is calculated as .0. Most of the items asked questions to determine various computing skills of the CEOs'. Most of the items correlate with each other. Similarly, computer literacy asked questions about various training programs and any self-taught skill attained by the CEOs'. Regression analysis has further found that computer experience did not contribute toward the use of IT. Whereas, among computer literacy, in-house training program is found to be significant predictor in determining the organizational use of IT.

The Durbin-Watson statistics is also calculated, as 1.85 that shows that problem of auto-correlation does not exist. Further the R and adjusted R suggests the validity and significance of the regression model. It is evident from the data analysis in Table as above that the hypotheses H1(a), H(a) H(c) and H(d) are rejected. Whereas, hypotheses H(b) is partially supported. Hypotheses H1(b) H1(c) are found to be significant.

One of the objectives of this study is to identify and assess the extent of the use of IT in organization. On a five-point Likert scale the mean usage of IT in the organizations is .51 with a standard deviation of 1.0. From the survey 51% of the organizations claimed their usage of information technology ranges from most of the time to all of the time. Whereas, 15% of the businesses use IT at about half of the time. Similarly, 1% of the businesses are still using IT occasionally. It is interesting to note that out of the 56% of the business that use

IT about most of the time, only 1% are medium sized organizations. Conversely, out of remaining 4% of the organizations that claimed the use of IT about half of the time, 66% of the organizations are medium sized. This is evident from the hypotheses testing that the size of the organization is not a determining factor in the use of IT. The size of the business therefore, does not exert positive effects on the organizational use of IT.

The type of business is found to be a significant variable in the study. The findings is that different business sectors have different levels of IT integration. Organizations involved in goods and services have higher intensity of computer usage as compared to those involved with product manufacturing and distribution. A further analysis of means (ANOVA) between various groups and also tests for significant differences has indicated that Banking and Travel business sector is more avid user of IT. The sales of the organizations under survey are found to be significant contributing factor in the use of IT. However, this study has discovered that IT is being used to gain competitive advantages. The results of responding organizations show the relationship of sales and the use of IT. It can be concluded that IT is used to increase the sales. As far as chief executives' parameters are concerned, most of the literature review supports the notion that CEO with higher educational qualifications also has more positive attitudes towards IT. Furthermore, prior computer training is found to be significant contributing factor. In the survey of CEOs' qualifications, computer experience and computer literacy were measured. Under the umbrella of computer literacy several factors were measured, such as in-house computer training, outside computer training and self-taught computer skill of the CEOs'. Only in-house computer training is found to be significant.

8. Conclusions

This study has identified and assessed the degree of the use of IT among participating small and medium business organizations in South Aftrica. It has identified the factors that influenced the use of IT. One of the major findings is chief executive's computer knowledge is positively associated with the use of IT. CEO knowledge of computer and involvement leads to more successful use of IT in business. The use of IT is however influenced by the organizational factors such as sales and type of business. The research has also identified that most of the surveyed organizations are avid users of IT, however it does not confirm the turnaround and strategic support from IT applications. That provides an insight for the chief executives and policy makers in revising their mission statements and to re-tune their perspective in promoting the business. Chief Executives not

only should explore the ways to adopt the latest technology but also to encourage their functional and business managers to learn and use the various techniques of telemarketing to get the business gain and to built a real IT culture. In order to build an IT based culture, IT should be used not only to support management functions but also to support the operational functions. The CEOs must look into the matter seriously. As evidenced from the study the business in South Africa is using and relying on IT like several other countries in the world. The use of IT among South African business organizations is in line with various world leaders such as America and Germany.

. References

ɨ Trevor Wegner,(1), Applied Business Statisitics Methods And Applications, Juta And Company, Ltd.

ɨ Donald R Cooper, Pamela S Schindler, Business Research Methods, Irwin Mc Graw- Hill.

ɨ Ang, J and Pavri, F., (14) " A Survey and Critique of the Impacts of Information Technology", International Journal of Information Management 14(), 1-1.

ɨ Rockart, J.F and Flannery, I., (18) "The Management of End-User Computing", Communication of the ACM, 6(10), pp. 776-784.

ɨ Raymond, L and Magnenet, T.N., (18) "Information System in Small Business Are they Used in Management Decision?", American Journal of Small Business l6(4) pp.0-7.

ɨ Hair, J.F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R.L and Grablowsky, B.J., (17) Multivariate Data Analysis, Tulsa, OK Petroleum Publishing Company..

10. Appendix.

ɨ Sampling Design

Sample design covers the areas of sampling frame, sample size. The total number of business establishments are 4085 (S A Computing Statistical Year book 17). It is further estimated from the above source that these small enterprises with less than 10 employees carry about 64% of the business and around 1% of the organizations are having more than 500 employees. Previous released statistics on the basis of the study has confirmed that about 76% of the business are using computers from above average to frequently use. By using the formula for estimating sample size for proportion and by setting 5% Confidence level (Z) and 7% Precision Level (D).

N = (pq) (Z ) / D

n = (.76)(.4) (1.6) / (.07)

n = .7007 / .004

= 14

Sample size of 14 organizations is used for this study. The total numbers of 14 sampling units were identified in the final stage on the basis of classification into various business sectors according to their share of each sector as provided into S A Computing Statistical Year Book. Based upon stratified/purpose selection methods, the final results were classified under following main groups Banking/Insurance, Construction, Hotels/Restaurants and Food Catering, Retails and Wholesale, Travelling &Shipping and finally, Professional Services Organizations. The above classifications were considered appropriate for the purpose of drawing the overall results together in terms of identifying trend. For the purpose of survey, the above classification presents a reasonable, comprehensive and wholesome approach toward inference making based upon this study.

ɨ Figure 1 Main Business Activities Of Responding Organizations.

ɨ Table Pearson Correlation between IT Usage And Antecedent Variables (N = 54)

Table Result f Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis Predicting Use Of IT

ɨ Questionaire.

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